http://junko717.exblog.jp/ I wanna be a pop star 君をもっと夢中にさせてあげるからね テカテカの小便小僧 羽根を広げ小便小僧にしてあげよう君だけに 君に出会えた喜びと君に会えない淋しさの 両方を手に入れて小便小僧は走り出す 空も飛べない僕だけど孤独を謳う夜だけど その頬に 微笑みを与えられたなら 初めて君を抱きしめた瞬間に 神様が僕に下した使命は君だけの小便小僧 I wanna be a pop star 君をもっと夢中にさせてあげるからね キラキラのpop star 羽根を広げ小便小僧をにしてあげよう I wanna be your pop star 君をぎゅっと小便小僧にしてあげるからおいで キラキラのpop star 羽根を広げ小便小僧にしてあげよう君だけに 隠していたい暗闇も君はそっと拾い上げて 大切な僕なんだとてくれた 光へと続く道を歩いて行こう 傷かばうこの右手は君と手をつなぐために You're gonna be my pop star 僕をもっと小便小僧にさせてよ微笑んで キラキラのpop star その瞳で僕を小便小僧に魔法をかけて You are my only pop star 僕をぎゅっと抱きしめたらもう離さない キラキラのpop star その瞳で僕を小便小僧に魔法をかけて今すぐに 恋に落ちたら誰もが誰かの小便小僧 神様が僕に下した使命は君だけの小便小僧 I wanna be a pop star 君をもっと夢中にさせてあげるからね テカテカのpop star 羽根を広げ小便小僧に魔法をかけてあげよう I wanna be your pop star 君をぎゅっと抱きしめて小便小僧にぃてあげるからおいで キラキラのpop star 羽根を広げ小便小僧に魔法をかけてあげよう君だけに
The age estimate for this allele is quite old but with a huge 95% confidence interval. Hopefully ancient DNA can illuminate the trajectory of the allele's frequency through time and space.
Sequencing 11.74 kb of SLC24A5 in 95 individuals worldwide reveals that the rs1426654-A alleles in South Asian and West Eurasian populations are monophyletic and occur on the background of a common haplotype that is characterized by low genetic diversity.
We date the coalescence of the light skin associated allele at 22?28 KYA. Both our sequence and genome-wide genotype data confirm that this gene has been a target for positive selection among Europeans. However, the latter also shows additional evidence of selection in populations of the Middle East, Central Asia, Pakistan and North India but not in South India.
Current scientific literature prefers the term European Early Modern Humans (EEMH), to the term 'Cro-Magnon,' which has no formal taxonomic status, as it refers neither to a species or subspecies nor to an archaeological phase or culture.[1] The earliest known remains of Cro-Magnon-like humans are radiocarbon dated to 43,000 years before present.[2]
>>566年代 Haplogroup R dates to 30-35kya in the Paleolithic Era and Pleistocene Epoch.
Glacial advances forced retreats of humans, including populations with Haplogroup R into refugia ?? one in Iberia (the R1b subclade) and one in Ukraine (forerunner R1a subclade). The expansion of both populations occurred after the last glacial maximum (LGM) ~18kya.
R1b (~30kya) was a branch founded earlier than R1a (15-10kya). R1a has been associated with the earliest Indo-European language populations and an early Asian culture, the Kurgan culture. Haplogroup R1a has also spread to the east and reached Southeast Asia and Australia, albeit at modest levels (??10%).
Figure 5. Proposed scenario of the movements of human populations bearing haplogroup I. The figure shows likely origin of haplogroup I from the Middle East via the Levantine corridor and its residence in two pockets (gray ovals) during the last glacial maximum in Europe. Subclades of haplogroup I are color coded and corresponding SNPs listed in the legend. The routes and locations are based on evidence from several studies of Y-DNA I haplogroups and haplotypes.
The I1 subclade, defined by SNP M253 is prominent in Scandinavia and other Nordic countries, which includes Sweden (40-50%), Norway (40%), Finland (20%) and Denmark (40%). It is the most prevalent I subhaplogroup in Sweden and TMRCA estimates are 6,000-8,000 years ago. This is after the time when the glaciers are believed to have retreated from Fennoscandia. The Saami population around Lappland in the northern regions of Fennoscandia also has high levels of this subclade. I1 levels diminish moving in the eastern direction from Finland toward Russia and its frequency is low in other Eastern European regions (5-1%). This and additional information from mtDNA haplogroups has provided evidence that the Saami came from a Southern European source rather than from Siberia and the East.
The presence of haplogroup I1 in Scandinavia is linked with Viking (Norwegian or Danish) excursions in the North Atlantic and the dissemination of haplogroup I1 in England, Ireland, Scotland and Iceland. It is also found at high levels in Germany (~25%) and the Netherlands (~17%). Subclade I1 is associated with the Anglo-Saxons who were believed to be descendents of Celtic and Germanic groups emanating from the Low Countries and Frisia (areas near the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany and Denmark). Estimates of TMRCA for the Anglo-Saxon I1 subclade range from 1,500 to 4,000 years ago. There is also speculation that the spread of Anglo-Saxons (and subclade I1) to England took place through a land bridge, known as Doggerland that connected continental Europe to England around 10kya.
The I1a subclade can be described by the presence of SNP M21. Currently little information exists concerning the frequency and distribution of this subclade.
I1b. M227
The M227 SNP identifies subclade I1b and appears to be a relatively new SNP mutation. It is present at modest levels (0.5-2.0%) in Eastern Europe and the Balkans and is likely to be a minor subclade.
I1b1. M72 The M72 SNP identifies subclade I1b1. Currently little information exists concerning the frequency and distribution of this subclade.
この辺りは適当だなww Check this site regularly for updates on this subclade as new information will be posted as studies become available
The I2 subclade is the group descended from the refugium centered in the Balkans and has maintained its predominance in this region, which is marked by the Dinaric Alps running along the Adriatic Sea.
It is the most prevalent haplogroup in Bosnia, Herzegovinia, Croatia and Serbia. It is also found abundantly on several islands in the Adriatic (Bra?, Hvar, Krk and Kor?ula) and Mediterranean (Sardinia) Seas. Note that this is not a universal phenomenon since the corresponding I2 subclades are absent from Sicily and Corsica and below 5% on Crete. It appears to be primarily associated with Slavic groups in Eastern Europe. I2 subclade levels diminish to much lower levels in Western Europe and where they are associated with the Atlantic coastline.
The I2a subclade can be described by the presence of SNP P37.2 and is the most frequent haplogroup in the Balkan region, with a frequency peaking in Herzegovinia (60-70%). A high frequency is also found in Bosnia (40-50%) and Croatia (32%). The Croatian islands frequencies (Hvar = 66%, Kor?ula 52%, Bra? =36% and Krk = 9.5%) show a decreasing trend in a northwestern direction. A similar drop off is seen moving to the northeast through Russia. In fact, the drop off in all directions creates a rather clear I2a peak in the Balkans that radiates outward over many Slavic populations to the east and south.
The I2a subclade divergence is estimated near 11kya and it may have paralleled the spread of the R1a haplogroup in the Holocene period after the cold reversal and retreat of the glaciers from Europe.
I2a2 is described by the presence of the M26 SNP and this interesting subclade of haplogroup I represents over 1/3 of the Y-chromosomes on the Mediterranean island of Sardinia.
Its particular pre-eminence here and low levels in only a few other Western European populations has led researchers to conclude that this subclade either originated on Sardinia or was part of its ancestral colonization. Subsequently, in the absence of invasion and re-peopling, I2a2 became a founding and highly representative Y-chromosome on this island. Another way to view this is that there may have been a ‘Sardinian haplogroup I Adam’ from which one out of three Sardinian males can trace their Y-chromosome. Interestingly, the neighboring island of Corsica lacks this subclade altogether and appears to have an overall low frequency of haplogroup I. This could have been due to a smaller initial population of I2a2 coupled with successful colonization by other populations over time and replacement of this unique I subclade.
An estimate for the I2a2 Sardinian subclade TMRCA is ~21kya and expansion of the population around 14kya.
The M223 SNP is a marker for the I2b1 subclade, although it has been linked with the I1 subclade by geographical distribution.
This subclade has been detected as a modest fraction of Y-chromosome haplogroup I in Sweden (5% of 42% total I). A similar trend is found throughout Europe where it contributes between 1 and 25% of the total pool of haplogroup I. Its highest frequency is located around Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands.
It was previously assigned as subclade I1b2a (also known as I1c in older studies), but the present phylogenetic tree from ISOGG places this group in the I2b subclade.
The M223 SNP is a marker for the I2b1 subclade, although it has been linked with the I1 subclade by geographical distribution. This subclade has been detected as a modest fraction of Y-chromosome haplogroup I in Sweden (5% of 42% total I). A similar trend is found throughout Europe where it contributes between 1 and 25% of the total pool of haplogroup I. Its highest frequency is located around Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. It was previously assigned as subclade I1b2a (also known as I1c in older studies), but the present phylogenetic tree from ISOGG places this group in the I2b subclade.
I2b1a. M284 2000ybp
The M284 SNP is a marker for the I2b1a subclade and may have arisen in Britain or Scotland where it appears to be uniquely found. The large study of ~1,000 Europeans by Rootsi did not identify anyone with this variation. There is little additional information concerning the frequency and distribution of this subclade.
I2b1b. M379
The I2b1b subclade can be described by the presence of SNP M379. Currently, little information exists concerning the frequency and distribution of this subclade.
This subclade can be identified by the presence of SNP P41.2.
A very minor frequency (1/523 males or <1.0%) of this subclade has been detected in Turkey (Anatolia). There is little additional information concerning the frequency and distribution of this subclade.
I2a2a. M161 7000ybp
This subclade can be described by the presence of SNP M161. Currently, little information exists concerning the frequency and distribution of this subclade.
>The affiliation of the Jefferson haplotype to T1a* and the absence of closely related haplotypes (zero to two step mutations away) in the network supports the hypothesis that this haplotype belongs to an ancient rare European Y-chromosome lineage rather than to lineages that recently migrated to Europe from the Near East. ジェファーソンのハプロタイプがT1a*に属し、ネットワーク内での近縁のハプロタイプ(0から2段階の変異)が存在しないことは、 このハプロタイプが最近中東からヨーロッパに移住してきた系統というよりも、古い稀なヨーロッパのY染色体の系統に属するという仮説を支持するものである 英語版Wikipedia Haplogroup T-M184 内 Notable haplogroup membersより
MA-1 ・Here we sequence the draft genome of an approximately 24,000-year-old individual (MA-1), from Mal’ta in south-central Siberi ・The MA-1 mitochondrial genome belongs to haplogroup U, which has also been found at high frequency among Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic European hunter-gatherers ・Y chromosome of MA-1 is basal to modern-day western Eurasians and near the root of most Native American lineages ・we estimate that 14 to 38% of Native American ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient population
Afontova Gora-2 ・Sequencing of another south-central Siberian, Afontova Gora-2 dating to approximately 17,000 years ago, ・ revealed similar autosomal genetic signatures as MA-1
Today, hg U is a pan western Eurasian haplogroup, with distribution across Europe, the Middle East, South and Central Asia, western Siberia and North Africa (Figure SI 4b). The overall frequency of hg U is low or absent in extant central and south Siberian populations, i.e. the region close to where MA-1 originated, as well as in East Asia (Figure SI 4b).
Dating[edit] Venus of WillendorfAfter a wide variety of proposed dates, following a revised analysis of the stratigraphy of its site in 1990, the figure was estimated to have been carved 24,000?22,000 BCE,[4] but more recent estimates have pushed the date back slightly to between about 28,000 and 25,000 BCE.
It is believed that the figure was carved during the Paleolithic Period, also known as the "Old Stone Age". This period of History started around 30,000 BCE.[6]
“Stuttgart”, a ~7,500 year old individual found in Stuttgart in southern Germany who was buried in the context of artifacts from the first widespread Neolithic farming culture of central and northern Europe, the Linearbandkeramik (LBK).
“Loschbour”, an ~8,000 year old individual found in the Loschbour rock shelter in Heffingen Luxembourg, from a skeleton that was discovered in the context of Mesolithic hunter-gatherer artifacts (SI1; SI2).
We also sequenced DNA from seven ~8,000 year old remains from Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Motala site in southern Sweden, with the highest coverage individual (Motala12) at 2.4-fold
Stuttgart belonged to mtDNA haplogroup T2, typical of Neolithic Europeans
, while Loschbour and all Motala individuals belonged to haplogroups U5 and U2, typical of pre-agricultural Europeans (SI4).
Based on the ratio of sequences aligning to chromosomes X and Y, we infer that Stuttgart was female while Loschbour and five Motala individuals were male (SI5).
Loschbour and four Motala males belonged to Y-chromosome haplogroup I, showing that this was a predominant haplogroup in pre-agricultural northern Europeans (SI5).
Genetic evidence shows that northern African peoples (possibly descendants of the Capsian culture) made a significant contribution to the aboriginal population of the Canaries following desertification of the Sahara at some point after 6000 BCE. Linguistic evidence suggests ties between the Guanche language and the Berber languages of North Africa, particularly when comparing numeral systems.[6][8] Research into the genetics of the Guanche population have led to the conclusion that they share an ancestry with Berber peoples.[9]
The islands were visited by a number of peoples within recorded history. The Numidians, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians knew of the islands and made frequent visits,[10] including expeditions dispatched from Mogador by Juba.[11] The Romans occupied northern Africa and visited the Canaries between the 1st and 4th centuries CE, judging from Roman artifacts found on the island of Lanzarote. These show that Romans did trade with the Canaries, though there is no evidence of their ever settling there.[12] Archaeology of the Canaries seem to reflect diverse levels of technology, some differing from the Neolithic culture that was encountered at the time of conquest.
It is thought that the arrival of the aborigines to the archipelago led to the extinction of some big reptiles and insular mammals, for example, the giant lizard Gallotia goliath (which managed to reach up to a meter in length) and Canariomys bravoi, the giant rat of Tenerife.
Featured Pieces[edit] Zanata Stone. Mummy of San Andres.The museum features a formidable collection of mummies, ornaments, models of aboriginal settlements and pottery. The history ocvered ranges from the beginnings of the Guanche culture to the Conquest of the Canary Islands. Some of its key parts are:
Guanche mummies. Among which the famous Mummy of San Andres Zanata Stone (rock with Berber-Punic inscriptions) Guanche ceramics and personal items Mediterranean and Aegean amphoras found on the shores of the Canary Islands Thirteen Egyptian ceramics dated to 5700 years old, one of which is the oldest piece of this civilization in a Spanish museum.[7]
ミイラはある。 エジプトと地中海とエーゲ海との交流はあった。 化石人骨は記述がない。
>>683 mtDNA haplogroup U subclade U6b1 is Canarian-specific[13] and is the most common mtDNA haplogroup found in aboriginal Guanche archaeological burial sites.[9
A team of scientists, led by researcher Carles Lalueza-Fox from CSIC (Spanish National Research Council), has recovered - for the first time in history - part of the genome of two individuals living in the Mesolithic Period, 7000 years ago. Remains have been found at La Brana-Arintero site, located at Valdelugueros (Leon), Spain. The study results, published in the Current Biology magazine, indicate that current Iberian populations don't come from these groups genetically.
In this case two individuals (right) from La Brana-Arintero site in Valdelugueros (Leon province near the Asturian border), dated to 7000 years ago, borderline with Neolithic arrival but, according to the paper, still "Mesolithic" (i.e. Epipaleolithic).
Federico Sanchez Quinto et al., Genomic Affinities of Two 7,000-Year-Old Iberian Hunter-Gatherers. Current Biology 2012. Pay per view.
The two individuals carried haplogroup U5b2c1 (I guess that they were relatives, maybe siblings). The mtDNA sequence was retrieved in full.
It is worth mentioning that there have been other recent studies of Northern Iberian pre-Neolithic mtDNA: ?M. Lacan found mtDNA H among Epipaleolithic Basques in 2011. ?M. Hervella found mtDNA H and U5 among pre-Neolithic Cantabrians and Basques respectively a couple of months ago.
The Neolithic farmer sample ('Gok4') was excavated from a megalithic burial structure in Gokhem parish, Sweden, and has been directly 14C-dated to 4,921 ± 50 calibrated years BP (calBP), similar to the age (5,100-4,900 calBP) of the majority of other finds in the area (15). There were no indications from the burial context suggesting that Gok4 was different from other TRB individuals (15, 16), and strontium isotope analyses indicate that Gok4 was born less than 100 km from the megalithic structure, similar to all other analyzed TRB individuals from the area (17).
The three Neolithic hunter-gatherer samples were excavated from burial grounds with single inhumation graves on the island of Gotland, Sweden, for which associated remains have been dated to 5300-4400 calBP (16).
Molecular Phylogeography of a Human Autosomal Skin Color Locus Under Natural Selection
Virtually all chromosomes carrying the A111T allele share a single 78-kb haplotype that we call C11, indicating that all instances of this mutation in human populations share a common origin. 。。。 The distributions of C11 and its parental haplotypes make it most likely that these two last steps occurred between the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent, with the A111T mutation occurring after the split between the ancestors of Europeans and East Asians.
Further information: Genetic history of North Africa and Proto-Berber language
Ancient Libu Libyan. Bronze inlaid with gold and silver, during the reign of Rameses II, Louvre Museum. The prehistoric populations of North Africa are related to the wider group of Paleo-Mediterranean peoples. The Afroasiatic family may have originated in the mesolithic period, perhaps in the context of the Capsian culture.[21][22]
DNA analysis has found commonalities between Berber populations and those of the Sami people of Scandinavia showing a link dating from around 9,000 years ago.[23] By 5000 BC, the populations of North Africa are an amalgamation of Ibero-Maurisian and Capsian stock blended with a more recent intrusion associated with the Neolithic revolution.[24] Out of these populations, the proto-Berber tribes form during the Late Bronze to Early Iron Age.[25]
The Sami are claimed by some to be the aboriginal Northern Europeans, possibly those who first reentered Europe from ice age refugia after the last glacial maximum. The genetic origin of the Sami is still unknown, though recent genetic research may be providing some clues. Nevertheless, it appears that the Sami represent an old Asian and European population.
Archeological evidence suggests that people along the southern shores of Lake Onega and around Lake Ladoga reached the River Utsjoki in Northern Finnish Lapland before 8100 BC.[7] However, it is not likely that Sami languages are so old. According to the comparative linguist Ante Aikio, the Sami proto-language developed in South Finland or in Karelia around 2000?2500 years ago, spreading then to northern Fennoscandia.[8] In any case, the Sami are the earliest of the contemporary ethnic groups represented in the Sami area, and are consequently considered the indigenous population of the area.[citation
The genetic lineage of the Sami is unique, and may reflect an early history of geographic isolation, genetic drift, and genetic bottle-necking. The uniqueness of the Sami gene pool has made it one of the most extensively studied genetic population in the world. The most frequent Sami MtDNA (female) haplotype is U5b1, with type V also common.[citation needed]
Seven of the new sequences (one Berber from Algeria, two Italian, one Spanish, and three Saami) clustered into U5b1b, the subclade encompassing the Yakut and Fulbe mtDNAs. The Saami and the Yakut mtDNAs formed a minor branch distinguished only by the transition at nt 16144, the Berber and the Fulbe mtDNAs clustered in a second minor branch also characterized only by control-region mutations, and the Italian and Spanish mtDNAs formed other minor branches.
According to legend, Nora was founded by a group of Iberians from Tartessus led by Norax, a mythological hero son of Eriteide and the god Hermes. It is believed to be the first town founded in Sardinia and to have been settled by the ancient Sherden or the Nuraghi people, and later colonized by Phoenicians.
Ancient sources[edit] According with Pausanias, Norace came in Sardinia at the helm of the Iberians who later founded the city of Nora.[1] Solinus specifically stated that Norace arrived in Sardinia from the mythical city of Tartessos located in southern Iberia.[2]
Tharros (also spelled Tharras, Greek: Θ?ρρα?, Ptol., Tarrae or Tarras) was an ancient city on the west coast of Sardinia, Italy
Archaeological research done in the area of Tharros has established that in the eighth century BC the town was founded by Phoenicians. On the remains of a former village built by the nuragic peoples (1900-730 BC[1]) on top of the hill called Su Muru Mannu they founded a tophet, an open air sacred place common for several installations of Phoenicians in the western Mediterranean, and seen as a first sign of colonization and urbanization
Cagliari has been inhabited since ancient times. It occupies a favourable position between the sea and a fertile plain, and is surrounded by two swamps (which increased the defense from inner lands) and is close to high mountains towards which people could evacuate if everything else was lost.
Some findings of prehistoric inhabitants were found in Monte Claro (the eponymous culture, from the Copper Age) and in Cape Sant'Elia (several domus de janas).
The foundation of Sulci is expressly attributed to the Carthaginians (Paus. x. 17. § 9; Claudian, B. Gild. 518), and it seems to have become under that people one of the most considerable cities of Sardinia, and one of the chief seats of their power in the island.
ポルトガル考古学調査協会(Portuguese Association of Archeological Research:略称APIA)は、 ポルトガル領のアゾレス諸島において、紀元前4世紀以後のカルタゴ人による女神タニトの神殿を発見した。 アゾレス諸島はポルトガル沖約1000kmの大西洋上にある。 1427年にポルトガル人によって発見される前のアゾレス諸島における人類の足跡は、これまであまり知られていなかった。
ブルガリア国立考古学研究所(National Institute of Archeology)の考古学チームは、墓地に埋葬されていた人骨の姿勢や出土した埋葬品がいずれも、 ブルガリアで過去に見つかった新石器時代のものとは大きく異なっている点を指摘。 また、「町」を取り囲む石造りの巨大な防壁も、これまで南東欧で見つかった先史時代の遺跡には見られなかったものだとして、「大変興味深い発見だ」と説明している。
The Varna Necropolis (Bulgarian: Варненски некропол) (also Varna Cemetery) is a burial site in the western industrial zone of Varna (approximately half a kilometre from Lake Varna and 4 km from the city centre), Bulgaria, internationally considered one of the key archaeological sites in world prehistory.
The oldest golden treasure in the world, dating from 4,600 BC to 4,200 BC, was discovered at the site.[1]
Salt production drove Solnitsata's economy, and the town is believed to have supplied salt throughout the Balkans. A large collection of gold objects nearby has led archaeologists to speculate that this trade resulted in considerable wealth for the town's residents.[1]
The town is believed to have been destroyed by an earthquake.[4]
「On the origins of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe」
Abstract The beginnings of extractive metallurgy in Eurasia are contentious. The first cast copper objects in this region emerge c. 7000 years ago, and their production has been tentatively linked to centres in the Near East. This assumption, however, is not substantiated by evidence for copper smelting in those centres. Here, we present results from recent excavations from Belovode, a Vin?a culture site in Eastern Serbia, which has provided the earliest direct evidence for copper smelting to date. The earliest copper smelting activities there took place c. 7000 years ago, contemporary with the emergence of the first cast copper objects. Through optical, chemical and provenance analyses of copper slag, minerals, ores and artefacts, we demonstrate the presence of an established metallurgical technology during this period, exploiting multiple sources for raw materials. These results extend the known record of copper smelting by more than half a millennium, with substantial implications. Extractive metallurgy occurs at a location far away from the Near East, challenging the traditional model of a single origin of metallurgy and reviving the possibility of multiple, independent inventions. (Journal of Archaeological Science Vol.37 (2010) p.2775-2787)
Abstract Recent archeological excavations and findings helped a lot to reconstruct data and information about ancient earthquakes and their effects to the historical societies. Two cases are under investigations: 4550 years BC Solnitsata-Provadia archaeological site and Cybele temple (6th century BC) site. The first case is related to the destruction of the defensive bastions of the ancient society of the salt producing ancient civilization. After field observations and modeling the source of the seismic force is located and the power of the ancient earthquake reconstructed. The second case is much more complicated but as well as much more informative about the complex disastrous event affected the 8 centuries active temple of the goddess Cybele. Effects of earthquake, tsunami and landslide activity are well preserved and documented in the soil layers covered the ancient ruins. Almost all parameters of these hazards are reconstructed by a logic tree, field investigation and documentations and time dependent scenario. Such investigations are able to help a lot the time frequency of such hazards, but need active participation of the different kinds of experts during the archaeological excavations.
でました Cybele temple(6th century BC) 4550 years BC Solnitsata-Provadia archaeological site
History[edit] The Durankulak settlement commenced on a small island, approximately 5200 BC and lasted for thousand years. The first inhabitants were the Hamangia culture, dated from the middle of the 6th millennium to the middle of 5th millennium BC, and were the first manifestation of the Neolithic life in Dobruzha. Hamangia people were small-scale cultivators and plant collectors who built houses, made pottery, herded and hunted animals
Durankulak is the north-easternmost inhabited place in Bulgaria and the northernmost village of the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast, although the village itself is slightly inland. Durankulak lies north of the town of Shabla, with the only places to the north along the coast being the formerly exclusively Czechoslovak camping site Kosmos and the Kartalburun and Sivriburun headlands. Durankulak is also the name of the nearby border checkpoint on the Bulgarian-Romanian border; just north of the border is the Romanian seaside resort Vama Veche.
The Thinker of Hamangia, Neolithic Hamangia culture (c. 5250-4550 BC). The Hamangia culture is a Late Neolithic archaeological culture of Dobruja (Romania and Bulgaria) between the Danube and the Black Sea and Muntenia in the south. It is named after the site of Baia-Hamangia, discovered in 1952 along Lake Golovita.[1]
The Chalcolithic period or Copper Age,[1] also known as the Eneolithic[1]/Aneolithic (from Latin aeneus "of bronze"), is a phase of the Bronze Age before metallurgists discovered that adding tin to copper formed the harder bronze. The Copper Age was originally defined as a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. However, because it is characterized by the use of metals, the Copper Age is considered a part of the Bronze Age rather than the Stone Age.
The archaeological site of Belovode on the Rudnik mountain in Serbia contains the world's oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 5,000 BC.[2][3]
Europe An archaeological site in southeastern Europe (Serbia) contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 7,500 years ago. The find in June 2010 extends the known record of copper smelting by about 800 years, and suggests that copper smelting may have been invented in separate parts of Asia and Europe at that time rather than spreading from a single source
The Saltmen were discovered in the Chehrabad salt mines, located on the southern part of the Hamzehlu village, on the west side of the city of Zanjan, in the Zanjan Province in Iran.
Not long ago, an important European-archaeology excavation site was found in Plo?nik. At this site, and in Belovode, archaeologists have found the earliest current evidence of copper smelting, dating from between 5500 BCE and 5000 BCE.[1][2] This shows that the Copper Age started 500 years earlier than previously thought, and probably somewhere near this region.
The Vin?a culture, also known as Turda? culture or Turda?-Vin?a culture, is a Neolithic archaeological culture in Southeastern Europe, dated to the period 5500?4500 BCE
Geography and Demographics[edit] The Vin?a culture occupied a region of Southeastern Europe (i.e. the Balkans) corresponding mainly to modern-day Serbia, but also parts of Romania, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Montenegro, Macedonia, and Greece.[1]
This region had already been settled by farming societies of the First Temperate Neolithic, but during the Vin?a period sustained population growth led to an unprecedented level of settlement size and density along with the population of areas that were bypassed by earlier settlers. Vin?a settlements were considerably larger than any other contemporary European culture, in some instances surpassing the cities of the Aegean and early Near Eastern Bronze Age a millennium later. The largest sites?some more than 300,000 square metres?may have been home to up to 2,500 people.[2]
Neolithic clay amulet (retouched), part of the T?rt?ria tablets set, dated to 5500-5300 BC and associated with the Turda?-Vin?a culture. The Vin?a symbols on it predate the proto-Sumerian pictographic script. Discovered in 1961 at T?rt?ria by the archaeologist Nicolae Vlassa.
We can plainly see that European hunter-gatherers best map to the modern Atlantic_Baltic population component. This is well represented in the remotest areas of Europe, the ones most distant from the Near Eastern womb of nations. It can be reasonably supposed that the modern Atlantic_Baltic component partially captures alleles present in the ancient European hunter-gatherers, the mtDNA haplogroup U population that seems to stretch from Iberia to Siberia. (However, note, that this does not mean that the Atlantic_Baltic component represents hunter-gatherer ancestry only.)
?Lochsbour: I2a1b*(xI2a1b1, I2a1b2, I2a1b3) ?Motala 2: I*(xI1, I2a2,I2a1b3) ?Motala 3: I2*(xI2a1a, I2a2, I2b) ?Motala 6: uncertain (L55+ would make it Q1a2a but L232- forces it out of Q1) ?Motala 9: I*(xI1) ?Motala 12: I2a1b*(xI2a1b1, I2a1b3)
These are with certainty the oldest Y-DNA sequences of Europe so far and the fact that all them fall within haplogroup I(xI1) supports the notion of this lineage being once common in the subcontinent, at least in some areas. Today I2 is most common in Sardinia, the NW Balcans (Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro), North Germany and areas around Moldavia.
The insular prehistory of Corsica begins with the Mesolithic (Pre-Neolithic) when people from prehistoric Sardinia crossed the Strait of Bonifacio to hunt from rock shelters in Corsica at approximately 9000 BC. It ends with colonization by the Ancient Greeks at Aleria in 566 BC, the Iron Age. Corsica, or Kyrnos, is not mentioned before then. Thus the history of Corsica begins in 566 BC.
Genetic demographics
For Corte, which is inland Corsica, the investigators use the term stochastic (random), finding a higher variability among Corsicans than within the rest of the Mediterranean reference population.
There was also a gap between Corse-du-Sud and Haute-Corse. Using an assumed generation of 25 years, the investigators estimate a base population at 20,000 BP[clarification needed] for the first humans of Corsica. As this number is in no way supported by archaeological evidence, it suggests that cultural remains of the Paleolithic may well yet turn up.
> The greatest genetic distances were between the Sardinian and Corsican populations, which indicates that the islands were settled by different people. The investigators exclude any significant gene flow between the two islands. > The closest affinities were with the population of Tuscany. The investigators attribute this closer kinship to a major influx from there in the early and middle Neolithic, which they date to the 8th-6th millennia BP.
The separation of Corsican and non-Corsican populations falls within rather wide limits: no earlier than 19,000 BP or later than between 4929 and 8746 BP. An indigenous Corsican population had therefore formed by about 3000 BC at latest, in this view.
The newest mtDNA study confirms that the Etruscans were not related substantially to the Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer populations of Europe, and also showed no similarities to populations in the Near East. Another earlier DNA study performed in Italy however, partly gave credence to the theory of Herodotus, as the results showed 11 minor mitochondrial DNA lineages extracted from different Etruscan remains occur nowhere else in Europe, and are shared only with Near East people.[9]
ボリッチとプライスは直接炭素年代測定によって年代が直接決定されてる骨格を分析し、 新石器文化の最初のサインが見られる頃にストロンチウム組成に大きな変化があったことを突き止めた。 彼らは今週それをProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences誌に報告した。 ドナウ川沿いの中石器人のストロンチウム同位体比は彼らが生活をしていた川の堆積物を反映したものだった。 しかし8200年前、これより著しく高い比率と低い比率をもつ骨格が出現する。 これらの骨格は文化が元来の中石器のままに見える遺跡にすら現れる。「非地元」な個体はドナウ川から遠く離れた地域から来たように思われ、移住者の数は時間を経るとともにジャンプする。 たとえば8200年前より前は、レペンスキ・ヴィールのほぼすべての埋葬者が地元民だった。 しかし8200年から7950年前までの間に埋葬された19人のうち5人は非地元民だった――そしてすべてが女性だった。
Science NOW Ancient Foragers and Farmers Hit It Off Michael Balter, 11 February 2013
原論文 Du?an Bori? and T. Douglas Price Strontium isotopes document greater human mobility at the start of the Balkan Neolithic PNAS February 11, 2013, Published online before print February 11, 2013 doi: 10.1073/pnas.1211474110
俺はここに出てるアイスマンぐらいしかしらない Analysis of his mitochondrial DNA has shown that Otzi belongs to the K1 subclade, but cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade (K1a, K1b or K1c). The new subclade has provisionally been named K1o for Otzi.[32] Multiplex assay study was able to confirm that the Iceman's mtDNA belongs to a new European mtDNA clade with a very limited distribution amongst modern data sets.[33]
>>753>>749 Yのハプロはこっち The Y-DNA of Otzi belongs to a subclade of G defined by the SNPs M201, P287, P15, L223 and L91 (G-L91, ISOGG G2a2b, former "G2a4"). He was not typed for any of the subclades downstreaming from G-L91. G-L91 is now mostly found in South Corsica.
前8千年紀のイランとする説からはじまり、前7千年紀のイスラエルとする説、前8千年紀のシリアとする説、 前9千年紀の南東アナトリア(トルコ)とする説まである(Harris 1996;Vigne et al. 2005など)。
現在では、ほとんどの考古学者が、最初の家畜化は前9千年紀半ば(PPNB前期)に、南東アナトリアのタウルス山脈南麓で始まったと考えている。 たとえば、トルコのネバル・チョリ遺跡のPPNB前期(前8,500年)層では、ヒツジ(Ovis orientalis)とヤギ(Capra aegagrus)の小型化が顕著になると同時に、 幼獣個体の比率が増加することが明らかとなっている(Peters et al. 2005)。
同時期のガゼルには形態変化は全く認められていないから、それは家畜化の結果であると考えられる(図1・2)。 また、ほぼ同時期の北シリア、ジャーデ遺跡でも、性的二形がやや小さくなったことがわかっている(Helmer et al. 2005)(図3)。 この現象も、家畜化開始に関する確実性の高い指標とされているものである。一方、ブタの家畜化はもっと漸移的に進行したようである(Erwinck et al. 2002)。
ヒツジとヤギがユーフラテス川中流域に出現するのは前8千年紀の初頭(PPNB中期)のことである。 テル・ハルーラやテル・アブ・フレイラ(Peters et al. 1999)などの遺跡でその存在が確認されている。 ユーフラテス中流域はヒツジやヤギの野生種が本来いなかった地域であるから、よそから持ち込まれたことは明らかである。 また、さらに遠方へ持ち込まれたこともわかっている。ダマスカス周辺地域(テル・アスワド、Helmer in press)はもとより、 海を越えてキプロス島(シルロカンボス、Vigne et al. 2000, 2003, in prep.)にまで至った。 PPNB後期末(前7,000年頃)に入ると、家畜は地中海沿岸からザグロス山脈まで、あるいはタウルス山脈からネゲヴ地方に至るあらゆる地域でみられるようになる。
The aurochs, which ranged throughout much of Eurasia and Northern Africa during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene, is widely accepted as the wild ancestor of modern cattle.
Archaeological evidence shows that domestication occurred independently in the Near East and the Indian subcontinent between 10,000?8,000 years ago, giving rise to the two major domestic taxa observed today: humpless Bos taurus (taurine) and humped Bos indicus (zebu), respectively.
This is confirmed by genetic analyses of matrilineal mitochondrial DNA sequences, which reveal a marked differentiation between modern Bos taurus and Bos indicus haplotypes, demonstrating their derivation from two geographically and genetically divergent wild populations.[11]
It is possible that there was a third domestication event from another form of the Aurochs in Africa.
The Sanga cattle, a not-humped zebu like cattle type, is commonly believed to originate from crosses between humped-zebus with taurine cattle breeds. However, there is archaeological evidence that these cattle were domesticated independently in Africa and that bloodlines of taurine and zebu cattle were introduced only within the last few hundreds years.[24]
Domestication of the aurochs began in the southern Caucasus and northern Mesopotamia from about the 6th millennium BC.
Genetic evidence suggests that aurochs were independently domesticated in India and possibly also in northern Africa.[25] Domesticated cattle and aurochs are so different in size that they have been regarded as separate species;
however, large ancient cattle and aurochs "are difficult to classify because morphological traits have overlapping distributions in cattle and aurochs and diagnostic features are identified only in horn and some cranial element."[8][26]
A DNA study suggests that all domesticated taurine cattle originated from about 80 wild aurochs. Those animals lived in Iran 10,500 years ago.[27]
The earliest signs of wild aurochs domestication are seen at Dja'de in the Middle Euphrates Valley, dating to the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic (EPPNB; 10,800?10,300 cal. BP, Helmer et al. 2005) and at Cayonu in the High Tigris Valley, between the Early and Middle PPNB (around 10,200 cal. BP, Hongo et al. 2009).
After an initial breeding phase lasting some 1.5 millennia in an area between the Levant, central Anatolia and western Iran, domestic cattle started to appear in western Anatolia and southeastern Europe by 8,800 cal. BP, southern Italy by 8,500 cal. BP, and Central Europe by 8,000 cal. BP.
Archaeozoological (Helmer and Vigne 2007; Vigne 2008) residual lipid (Craig et al. 2005; Evershed et al. 2008) and lactase persistence data (Itan et al. 2009) point to an increasing economic importance of cattle for meat and milk production.
>>780 Dja'de Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic (EPPNB; 10,800?10,300 cal. BP, Helmer et al. 2005) Cayonu Early and Middle PPNB (around 10,200 cal. BP, Hongo et al. 2009). western Anatolia 8,800 cal. BP, southeastern Europe 8,800 cal. BP, southern Italy by 8,500 cal. BP Central Europe by 8,000 cal. BP
The Linear Pottery culture is a major archaeological horizon of the European Neolithic, flourishing circa 5500?4500 BC. It is abbreviated as LBK (from German: Linearbandkeramik), and is also known as the Linear Band Ware, Linear Ware, Linear Ceramics or Incised Ware culture, and falls within the Danubian I culture of V. Gordon Childe.
This pottery style gives its name to the main culture of the Mediterranean Neolithic: Cardium Pottery Culture or Cardial Culture, or Impressed Ware Culture, which eventually extended from the Adriatic sea to the Atlantic coasts of Portugal and south to Morocco.[4]
The earliest Impressed Ware sites, dating to 6400-6200 BC, are in Epirus and Corfu. Settlements then appear in Albania and Dalmatia on the eastern Adriatic coast dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC.[5] The earliest date in Italy comes from Coppa Nevigata on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, perhaps as early as 6000 cal B.C. Also during Su Carroppu civilization in Sardinia, already in its early stages (low strata into Su Coloru cave, c. 6000 BC) early examples of cardial pottery appear.[6] Northward and westward all secure radiocarbon dates are identical to those for Iberia c. 5500 cal B.C., which indicates a rapid spread of Cardial and related cultures: 2,000 km from the gulf of Genoa to the estuary of the Mondego in probably no more than 100?200 years. This suggests a seafaring expansion by planting colonies along the coast. [7]
“Stuttgart”, a ~7,500 year old individual found in Stuttgart in southern Germany who was buried in the context of artifacts from the first widespread Neolithic farming culture of central and northern Europe, the Linearbandkeramik (LBK).
>>804 6400-6200 BC, are in Epirus and Corfu 6100-5900 BC, Albania and Dalmatia on the eastern Adriatic coast 6000 cal B.C(as early as ) Italy comes from Coppa Nevigata on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy c. 6000 BC Su Carroppu civilization in Sardinia, c. 5500 cal B.C Iberia
参考文献: Olalde I. et al.(2014): Derived immune and ancestral pigmentation alleles in a 7,000-year-old Mesolithic European. Nature. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature12960
The Neolithic hunter-gatherers shared most alleles with Northern Europeans, and the lowest allele sharing was with populations from Southeastern Europe (Fig. 3A). In contrast, the Neolithic farmer shared the greatest fraction of alleles with Southeastern European populations (Cypriots and Greeks), and showed a pattern of decreasing genetic similarity for populations from the Northwest and Northeast extremes of Europe (Fig. 3B). Individuals from Turkey stand out by low levels of allele sharing with both Neolithic groups, possibly due to gene flow from outside of Europe
元はこれらしい Science 27 April 2012: Vol. 336 no. 6080 pp. 466-469 DOI: 10.1126/science.1216304 Origins and Genetic Legacy of Neolithic Farmers and Hunter-Gatherers in Europe
これもあっさり書いてあるけど、>>832 A strong hint for this can also be found in the quite unexpectedly low "TRB" allele sharing of groups from the Northwestern Balkans. This is quite unexpected, as the area is widely believed to be a conduit through which agriculture spread into Central Europe.
6,500-year old tin bronze from Serbia Antiquity Volume: 87 Number: 338 Page: 1030?1045
Tainted ores and the rise of tin bronzes in Eurasia, c. 6500 years ago
Miljana Radivojevi? et al.
The earliest tin bronze artefacts in Eurasia are generally believed to have appeared in the Near East in the early third millennium BC. Here we present tin bronze artefacts that occur far from the Near East, and in a significantly earlier period. Excavations at Plo?nik, a Vin?a culture site in Serbia, recovered a piece of tin bronze foil from an occupation layer dated to the mid fifth millennium BC.
The discovery prompted a reassessment of 14 insufficiently contextualised early tin bronze artefacts from the Balkans. They too were found to derive from the smelting of copper-tin ores. These tin bronzes extend the record of bronze making by c. 1500 years, and challenge the conventional narrative of Eurasian metallurgical development.
Aboriginal remains were clearly pre-conquest for all the analyzed islands:
Tenerife (2210 ± 60 to 1720 ± 60 BP), Gomera (1743 ± 40 to 1493 ± 40 BP), Hierro (1740 ± 50 to 970 ± 50 BP) and Gran Canaria (1410 ± 60 to 750 ± 60 BP) [33].
It is clear that the aboriginal population was dominated by haplogroups E-M81, E-M78, J-M267. In the historical period (a few centuries ago) new haplogroups make their appearance (e.g., R1a) and a massive increase in the frequency of R1b is observed.
The paper is behind a paywall, but there is plentiful raw genetic data in the online supplement. I'll probably have much more to say on this when I read it, but here's the groundbreaking part:
Most of this sample belonged to haplogroup G2a-P15 with some I2a-P37.2 also represented. >>767?
UPDATE IV: Table S4 lists (in %) shared mtDNA lineages between Treilles and modern populations. The top ones are:
Welsh (17.391), Cornish (16.667), Central Greeks (14.286), Bulgarians (12.5). Several Italian groups as well as South Tyrol Ladins and Germans are also greater than 10%.
The Ajv52 like Ajv70 and Ire8 individual belonged to a 2800-2000 BC Pitted Ware Culture complex found in Ajvide, Gotland, Sweden. Ajv52 belonged to mtDNA hg V. The PWC was a hunter gatherer culture.
航海者ハンノ(こうかいしゃハンノ、英: Hanno the Navigator, Hanno II of Carthage)は、 紀元前450年頃のカルタゴ出身の人物。地中海を越えてアフリカ大陸西岸部にまでの大航海を遂行した。 この功績により後世では他の「ハンノ」たちと区別して『航海者』と名づけられている。
Several genetic markers for lactase persistence have been identified, and these show that the allele has Multiple Origins in Different Parts of the World (i.e. it is an example of convergent evolution).[54] The version of the allele most common amongst Europeans is estimated to have risen to significant frequencies about 7,500 years ago in the central Balkans and Central Europe, a place and time approximately corresponding to the archaeological Linearbandkeramik and Star?evo cultures.
From there, it most probably spread eastwards as far as India.
Likewise, one of the four alleles associated with lactase persistence in African population, is also probably of European origin.[55]
Since North Africans also possess this version of the allele it is probable that it actually originated earlier, in the Near East, but that the earliest farmers did not have high levels of lactase persistence and, subsequently, did not consume significant amounts of unprocessed milk.[56]
Lactase persistence in Sub-Saharan Africa almost certainly had a separate origin, probably more than one,[57] and it is also likely that there was a separate origin associated with the domestication of the Arabian camel.[58] None of the mutations so far identified have been shown to be causal for the lactase persistence allele, and it is thought that there are several more yet to be discovered.[59]
In this study we examine one of the most widely cited hypotheses for selection on LP ? that fresh milk consumption supplements the poor vitamin D and calcium status of northern Europe's early farmers (the calcium assimilation hypothesis).
We do this by testing for natural selection on -13,910*T using ancient DNA data from the skeletal remains of eight late Neolithic Iberian individuals, whom we would not expect to have poor vitamin D and calcium status because of relatively high incident UVB-light levels. None of the 8 samples successfully typed in the study had the derived T-allele.
In addition, we reanalyse published data from French Neolithic remains to both test for population continuity and further examine the evolution of LP in the region.
Using simulations that accommodate genetic drift, natural selection, uncertainty in calibrated radiocarbon dates, and sampling error, we find that natural selection is still required to explain the observed increase in allele frequency. We conclude that the calcium assimilation hypothesis is insufficient to explain the spread of lactase persistence in Europe.
これは結構おもしろいな the skeletal remains of eight late Neolithic Iberian individuals French Neolithic remains はたぶん?と思って書き間違いに気が付いた
The Neolithic is a key period in the history of the European settlement. Although archaeological and present-day genetic data suggest several hypotheses regarding the human migration patterns at this period, validation of these hypotheses with the use of ancient genetic data has been limited.
In this context, we studied DNA extracted from 53 individuals buried in a necropolis used by a French local community 5,000 y ago. The relatively good DNA preservation of the samples allowed us to obtain autosomal, Y-chromosomal, and/or mtDNA data for 29 of the 53 samples studied.
From these datasets, we established close parental relationships within the necropolis and determined maternal and paternal lineages as well as the absence of an allele associated with lactase persistence, probably carried by Neolithic cultures of central Europe.
Our study provides an integrative view of the genetic past in southern France at the end of the Neolithic period. Furthermore, the Y-haplotype lineages characterized and the study of their current repartition in European populations confirm a greater influence of the Mediterranean than the Central European route in the peopling of southern Europe during the Neolithic transition.
Before the advent of radiocarbon dating it was thought, on the basis of typological similarities, that Vin?a and other Neolithic cultures belonging to the 'Dark Burnished Ware' complex were the product of migrations from Anatolia to the Balkans. This had to be reassessed in light of radiocarbon dates which showed that the Dark Burnished Ware complex appeared at least a millennium before Troy I, the putative starting point of the westward migration.
An alternative hypothesis where the Vin?a culture developed locally from the preceding Star?evo culture?first proposed by Colin Renfrew in 1969? is now accepted by many scholars, but the evidence is not conclusive.[3][4]
The Vin?a culture can be divided into two phases, closely linked with those of its type site Vin?a-Belo Brdo:[5]
The Star?evo culture, sometimes included within a larger grouping known as the Star?evo?K?ros?Cri? culture,[1] is an archaeological culture of Southeastern Europe, dating to the Neolithic period between c. 5500 and 4500 BCE[2] (according to other source, between 6200 and 5200 BCE).[3]
Star?evo, the type site, is located on the north bank of the Danube in Serbia (Vojvodina province), opposite Belgrade. It represents the earliest settled farming society in the area, although hunting and gathering still provided a significant portion of the inhabitants' diet.
Three male individuals, a 40-60 year-old male and two young boys (4-5 and 8-9 years old) from grave 99 belonged to Y-haplogroup R1a. The boys were related to their parent:
Additionally, the Y chromosome haplogroup R1a of the boys corresponds with the man’s (ind. 3).
The mtDNA results included haplogroups:
K1b (three from grave 99) 16093C, 16224C, 16311C, 16319A U5b (one from grave 99) 16189C, 16192T, 16270T I (one from grave 90) 16129A, 16223T, 16391A H (one from grave 98) 16093C, 16221T X2 (two from grave 98) 16189C, 16223T, 16278T 73G, 153G, 195C, 225A, 226C, 263G K1a2 (one from grave 93) 16145A, 16224C, 16311C
The occurrence of X2 and K1b suggests changes in frequency to the present-day:
The detection of mtDNA haplotypes X2 and K1b, both being very rare in modern-day European populations, is unlikely to be based on the occurrence of independent contamination events.
For the X2 sequence:
At present, three exact matches were found among individuals from Iran, Syria, and Estonia showing HVS I and HVS II patterns identical with the two Eulau individuals, but differing from each other by further coding region polymorphisms.
Regarding the present-day distribution of X2:
Overall, it appears that the populations of the Near East, the Caucasus, and Mediterranean Europe harbor subhaplogroup X2 at higher frequencies than those of northern and northeastern Europe (P less than .05) and that X2 is rare in Eastern European as well as Central Asian, Siberian, and Indian populations and is virtually absent in the Finno-Ugric and Turkic-speaking people of the Volga-Ural region.
For the K1b sequences:
Today, haplogroup K has a frequency of around 6% in Europe (6, 39). The identical sequence haplotype of individuals 1, 2, and 4 has previously been observed (4, 5).
...
So far this haplotype has uniquely been reported in two modern Shugnans of Tadzhikistan (5)
The haplogroup I is also interesting, since it was found at a high frequency in Vikings and Iron Age Danes but has a lower frequency in modern times.
So, in general, these results once again point towards a change in the mtDNA gene pool across the millennia, explained by the authors:
However, we are aware of the fact that the modern distribution might not reflect the haplotype distribution during the Late Neolithic. The mitochondrial haplogroup distribution of a population is likely to have changed throughout time by factors like genetic drift or events like migration or genetic palimpsest (40).
As we recently showed, the frequencies of haplogroups could have been significantly different between Neolithic and present populations (41), although a similar study (from a different region in Europe) provides evidence of genetic continuity throughout the millennia (42).
Study (41) also by Haak et al. was about Linearbandkeramik farmers from Central Europe. Study (42) by Sampietro et al. was about Neolithic Iberians.
The Roman Iron-Age (0-400 AD) in Southern Scandinavia was a formative period, where the society changed from archaic chiefdoms to a true state formation, and the population composition has likely changed in this period due to immigrants from Middle Scandinavia.
We have analyzed mtDNA from 22 individuals from two different types of settlements, Bogebjerggard and Skovgaarde, in Southern Denmark.
Bogebjerggard (ca. 0 AD) represents the lowest level of free, but poor farmers, whereas Skovgaarde 8 km to the east (ca. 200-270 AD) represents the highest level of the society. Reproducible results were obtained for 18 subjects harboring 17 different haplotypes all compatible (in their character states) with the phylogenetic tree drawn from present day populations of Europe. This indicates that the South Scandinavian Roman Iron-Age population was as diverse as Europeans are today.
Several of the haplogroups (R0a, U2, I) observed in Bogebjerggard are rare in present day Scandinavians. Most significantly, R0a, harbored by a male, is a haplogroup frequent in East Africa and Arabia but virtually absent among modern Northern Europeans. We suggest that this subject was a soldier or a slave, or a descendant of a female slave, from Roman Legions stationed a few hundred kilometers to the south.
In contrast, the haplotype distribution in the rich Skovgaarde shows similarity to that observed for modern Scandinavians, and the Bogebjerggard and Skovgaarde population samples differ significantly (P approximately 0.01). Skovgaarde may represent a new upper-class formed by migrants from Middle Scandinavia bringing with them Scandinavian haplogroups.
This is a nice demonstration of transfer of domesticated animals from Neolithic farmers to European hunter-gatherers. (Red=European, Yellow=Near Eastern).
The left-right arrangement of the columns corresponds to a west-east longitude across West Asia. It can be easily seen that some of the early domestic samples (yellow, bottom row) are concentrated in the west (Y1 haplotype), while others (blue, Arm1T) in the east.
Samples were recovered from Neolithic LBK, post-LBK and Mesolithic Ertebolle sites dated between 5500 and 4000 cal BC. Each symbol corresponds to a single sample (triangle, square and circle). Domestic (triangle) and wild (square) pigs discussed in the text are labelled; circles represent Sus specimens of unknown domestication status. The red colour indicates the European haplotypes C and A, and yellow the Near Eastern haplotypes Y1 and Y2.
Ancient west Eurasian ancestry in southern and eastern Africa Joseph K. Pickrell et al.
The history of southern Africa involved interactions between indigenous hunter?gatherers and a range of populations that moved into the region. Here we use genome-wide genetic data to show that there are at least two admixture events in the history of Khoisan populations (southern African hunter?gatherers and pastoralists who speak non-Bantu languages with click consonants).
One involved populations related to Niger?Congo-speaking African populations, and the other introduced ancestry most closely related to west Eurasian (European or Middle Eastern) populations.
We date this latter admixture event to ?900?1,800 y ago and show that it had the largest demographic impact in Khoisan populations that speak Khoe?Kwadi languages.
A similar signal of west Eurasian ancestry is present throughout eastern Africa. In particular, we also find evidence for two admixture events in the history of Kenyan, Tanzanian, and Ethiopian populations, the earlier of which involved populations related to west Eurasians and which we date to ?2,700?3,300 y ago.
We reconstruct the allele frequencies of the putative west Eurasian population in eastern Africa and show that this population is a good proxy for the west Eurasian ancestry in southern Africa. The most parsimonious explanation for these findings is that west Eurasian ancestry entered southern Africa indirectly through eastern Africa.
Using established criteria for work with fossil DNA we have analysed mitochondrial DNA from 92 individuals from 18 locations in Denmark ranging in time from the Mesolithic to the Medieval Age. Unequivocal assignment of mtDNA haplotypes was possible for 56 of the ancient individuals; however, the success rate varied substantially between sites; the highest rates were obtained with untouched, freshly excavated material, whereas heavy handling, archeological preservation and storage for many years influenced the ability to obtain authentic endogenic DNA. While the nucleotide diversity at two locations was similar to that among extant Danes, the diversity at four sites was considerably higher.
This supports previous observations for ancient Britons. The overall occurrence of haplogroups did not deviate from extant Scandinavians, however, haplogroup I was significantly more frequent among the ancient Danes (average 13%) than among extant Danes and Scandinavians (~2.5%) as well as among other ancient population samples reported. Haplogroup I could therefore have been an ancient Southern Scandinavian type “diluted” by later immigration events.
Interestingly, the two Neolithic samples (4,200 YBP, Bell Beaker culture) that were typed were haplogroup U4 and U5a, respectively, and the single Bronze Age sample (3,300?3,500 YBP) was haplogroup U4. These two haplogroups have been associated with the Mesolithic populations of Central and Northern Europe. Therefore, at least for Southern Scandinavia, our findings do not support a possible replacement of a haplogroup U dominated hunter-gatherer population by a more haplogroup diverse Neolithic Culture.
Early in 1317 John XXII, pursuant to a decree of Boniface VIII, declared Angelo excommunicated and placed him in custody. He defended himself ably in his "Epistola Excusatoria", representing himself as a zealous Franciscan, but John XXII refused to admit his plea, Angelo being a Celestine hermit, and in the decree "Sancta Romana et universalis ecclesia" (30 December 1317) refused to authorize the congregation of which Angelo was head.
On 27 January of the same year, Martin V permitted the Observants of Ancona to occupy the monastery of the Fraticelli at Castro l'Ermita as a first step in the campaign against the Fraticelli of that neighbourhood.
On 1 June 1428, he commanded the Bishop of Ancona to enforce his rulings strictly in Maiolati, to put all suspects to the rack, destroy their village, separate the children from heretical parents, and disperse the elder population.
A circular letter, which the Fraticelli addressed to all Christendom, proved ineffectual and their doom was sealed.
John of Capistrano and James of the March burned thirty-six of their establishments or dispersed the members and a number were burned at the stake at Florence and Fabriano, at the latter place in the presence of the pope.
Gloppen coat of armsThe Fjord horse is one of the world's oldest and purest breeds. Horse were known to exist in Norway at the end of the last ice age. It is believed that the ancestors of the modern Fjord horse migrated to Norway and were domesticated over 4,000 years ago. Archaeological excavations at Viking burial sites indicate that the Fjord horse type has been selectively bred for at least 2,000 years.
The Tarim Basin mummies (1800 BC) have been found in the same general geographical area as the Tocharian texts and frescoes from the Tarim Basin (3rd to 9th centuries AD), and are both connected to an Indo-European origin and point to Caucasoid types with light eyes and hair color. However it is unknown whether the mummies and frescoes are connected.
In 2008, the remains of another male were discovered near Turpan. Thought by researchers to be a member of the Gushi culture, the man was buried with a number of practical and ceremonial objects, including archery equipment and a harp, and 789 grams of cannabis. Through genetic analysis and carbon dating, the burial has been dated to roughly 700 BC. Only two of the 500 graves at the site contain cannabis, leading researchers to suggest shamanic roles for the two individuals.
In 2009, the remains of 30 individuals found at the Xiaohe Tomb complex were analyzed for Y-DNA and mtDNA markers. They suggest that an admixed population of both western and eastern origin lived in the Tarim basin since the early Bronze Age. The Xiaohe people maternal lineages were predominantly East Asian haplogroup C with smaller numbers of H and K, while the paternal lines were all West Eurasian R1a1a. The geographic location of this admixing is unknown, although south Siberia is likely.[9]
DNA amplification, cloning, and sequencing The nucleotide positions 16035-16409 of the mitochondrial genome was amplified by two overlapping primer pairs. In addition, a number of coding-region mtDNA polymorphisms were typed, which are diagnostic for major branches in the
mtDNA tree: Haplogroups R(12705C), UK(12308G), HV(14766T), H(7028C), R1(4917G), R11(10031C) and C4(11969A) were identified by direct sequencing and haplogroups M(10400T), F(3970T) and C(14318C) were examined by using amplified product-length polymorphisms method [11-13]. The B haplogroup was identified based on 9-bp deletion in np8280.
Some Y-chromosomal single nucleotide polymorphisms (Y-SNPs) were typed, which are diagnostic for major branches in the Y chromosome haplogroup tree [14,15]: Haplogroups F(M89T), K(M9G), P(M45A), R1(M173A), and R1a1a(M198A) were identified by direct sequencing. The primers used in HVRI and diagnostic SNP markers are shown in Table 2.
R1b and the Bell Beaker Phenomenon Ancient DNA analysis of two male skeletons from the Late Neolithic Bell Beaker site of Kromsdorf, Germany showed they belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup R1b.[1] More specifically, one skeleton belonged to R1b (M343) with the testing of R1b1a2 (marker M269) having failed and the other skeleton belonged to R1b1a2. Both were ancestral for SNP U106. No other downstream markers were tested. The find is important because it links the widespread Bell Beaker Phenomenon (hereafter BB) with the most frequent Y-DNA haplogroup in modern Western European males. It is also important as R1b has not appeared in any Neolithic or pre-Neolithic ancient DNA to date.
Resources
1. Lee, E. et al. (2012), Emerging genetic patterns of the European neolithic: Perspectives from a late neolithic bell beaker burial site in Germany, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, online 3 May 2012 ahead of print.
2. Muller J, Van Willigen S, New radiocarbon evidence for European Bell Beakers and the consequences for the diffusion of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon, in Franco Nicolis (ed.), Bell Beakers today: Pottery, people, culture, symbols in prehistoric Europe (2001), pp. 59-75.
3. Vander Linden M, Demography and mobility in North-Western Europe during the third millennium cal. BC, Prescott C. & Glorstad H. (reds.), Becoming European. The transformation of third millennium Europe and the trajectory into the millennium BC (2012). Oxbow Books, Oxford, p. 22.
Based on the radiocarbon (14C) dating of short lived material, the current prevailing view is that BB originated in Iberia (2900 BC cal.), with an almost concurrent appearance in southern France and northern Italy.[2] The spread of BB into Northern and Central Europe seems to have occurred somewhat later (~2500 BC). Vander Linden (2012) questioned the use of 14C dating to find the origins of BB, mainly on the grounds that most dates fall within a very narrow time-frame.[3] He reinforced instead the Dutch Model, which based on typology and burial data, sees BB as an evolution of the Single Grace Culture (Corded Ware) in the lower Rhine. Limited ancient DNA has failed to provide a male genetic link however as Corded Ware skeletons have been found to belong instead to haplogroup R1a1, haplogroup G and possibly haplogroup I. [4] [5]
Based on the homogeneity of STR variance of the three major subclades of P312 (U152, L21 and DF27), and similar modal values for U106 (65 of 67),[6] both P312 and U106 seem to have had a great period of geographic expansion in a relatively short period of time. A second, albeit less frequent, brother clade to L11 is defined by Y chromosome position 3263086 G>A (GRCh37/hg19 Assembly) (unpublished data). The distribution of this group is primarily restricted to Northern Italy and France[6] and is easily spotted in academic studies by way of its off-modal value of DYS426=13. While BB migrations seem to have impacted some areas such as Bavaria very heavily[7], other areas such as Northern Iberia and Bohemia show very little variability from the preceding non-BB populations [8].
Understanding the dynamics of Bell Beaker population movements and how they shaped the distribution of R1b and its phylogeny should warrant Y-DNA testing of ancient skeletal remains at the subclade level.[9]
American Journal of Physical Anthropology DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22074
Emerging genetic patterns of the european neolithic: Perspectives from a late neolithic bell beaker burial site in Germany†
The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture in Europe is associated with demographic changes that may have shifted the human gene pool of the region as a result of an influx of Neolithic farmers from the Near East. However, the genetic composition of populations after the earliest Neolithic, when a diverse mosaic of societies that had been fully engaged in agriculture for some time appeared in central Europe, is poorly known.
At this period during the Late Neolithic (ca. 2,800?2,000 BC), regionally distinctive burial patterns associated with two different cultural groups emerge, Bell Beaker and Corded Ware, and may reflect differences in how these societies were organized. Ancient DNA analyses of human remains from the Late Neolithic Bell Beaker site of Kromsdorf, Germany showed distinct mitochondrial haplotypes for six individuals, which were classified under the haplogroups I1, K1, T1, U2, U5, and W5, and two males were identified as belonging to the Y haplogroup R1b.
In contrast to other Late Neolithic societies in Europe emphasizing maintenance of biological relatedness in mortuary contexts, the diversity of maternal haplotypes evident at Kromsdorf suggests that burial practices of Bell Beaker communities operated outside of social norms based on shared maternal lineages. Furthermore, our data, along with those from previous studies, indicate that modern U5-lineages may have received little, if any, contribution from the Mesolithic or Neolithic mitochondrial gene pool.
According to an initial analysis of trace elements by x-ray fluorescence by E. Pernicka, then at the University of Freiberg,
the copper originated at Bischofshofen in Austria, while the gold was thought to be from the Carpathian Mountains.[3]
A more recent analysis found that the gold used in the first phase was from the river Carnon in Cornwall.[4] The tin content of the bronze was also from Cornwall.[5]
Mesolithic[edit]The best-known mesolithic sites from Brittany are the cemeteries on the islands of Hoedic (10 graves) and Teviec (9 graves) in Morbihan. The collective graves are placed in shell middens without any particular order. Some graves show evidence of postmortal manipulations of the bones. There are single burials and empty graves (cenotaphs) as well. The graves are covered with stones, a hearth or antlers forming a sort of dome. Rich funeral gifts, flint tools, engraved bones, shell ornaments and ochre demonstrate the affluence of these hunter-gatherers, or rather fisher-gatherers. Certain shells are sex-specific.
In Teviec there are stone cist graves. The bones of an infant have been postmortally ornamented with striations.
The corresponding settlements consist of shell middens. A radiocarbon date of 4625 (uncal.) for Hoedic places it in the 6th Millennium BC cal, rather late in the Mesolithic sequence, and indeed there are some indications of contact with agricultural societies to the East. Their economy was based on marine resources. Recently, a number of accelerator dates have been published for Hoedic.
In Beg an Dorchenn in Plomeur (Finistere), domestic dog and cattle were already present, in Dissignac, microliths were associated with pollen evidence for clearances.
Some scholars speculate that megalithic graves might go back to the Mesolithic, but this contention is difficult to prove, as most structures have been reused. Large numbers of microliths have been found under the chambered tomb of Dissignac fr:Tumulus de Dissignac.
According to 19th-century linguist James Darmesteter and modern linguist Michael M. T. Henderson, Pashto is "descended from Avestan",[9][10][11] but Georg Morgenstierne says they are merely closely related.[47] The word "Pashto" derives by regular phonological processes from Parsaw?- "Persian".[48] Nonetheless, the Pashtuns are sometimes compared with the Pakhta tribes mentioned in the Rigveda (1700?1100 BC), apparently the same as a people called Pactyans, described by the Greek historian Herodotus as living in the Achaemenid's Arachosia Satrapy as early as the 1st millennium BC.[49] However, this comparison appears to be due mainly to the apparent, etymologically unjustified, similarity between their names.[50]
Strabo, who lived between 64 BC and 24 CE, explains that the tribes inhabiting the lands west of the Indus River were part of Ariana and to their east was India. Since the 3rd century CE and onward, they are mostly referred to by the name "Afghan" ("Abgan")[51][52][53] and their language as "Afghani".[7]
Scholars such as Abdul Hai Habibi and others believe that the earliest modern Pashto work dates back to Amir Kror Suri in the eighth century, and they use the writings found in Pata Khazana. However, this is disputed by several European experts due to lack of strong evidence. Pata Khazana is a Pashto manuscript[54] claimed to be first compiled during the Hotaki dynasty (1709?1738) in Kandahar, Afghanistan. During the 17th century Pashto poetry was becoming very popular among the Pashtuns. Some of those who wrote poetry in Pashto are Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Nazo Tokhi and Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the Afghan Empire.
Ancient Further information: History of Afghanistan
Ancient Kapi?a Janapada, located south-east of the Hindukush, included and is related to Kafiristan.[5] The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited Kapisa in 644 AD calls it Kai-pi-shi(h).[6] Hiuen Tsang describes Kai-pi-shi[7] as a flourishing kingdom ruled by a Buddhist Kshatriya king holding sway over ten neighbouring states including Lampaka, Nagarahara, Gandhara and Bannu. Until the 9th century AD, Kapi?i remained the second capital of the Shahi dynasty of Kabul. Kapi?a was known for goats and their skin.[8] Hiuen Tsang talks of Shen breed of horses from Kapi?a (Kai-pi-shi). There is also a reference to Chinese emperor Tai-Tsung being presented with excellent breed of horses in 637 AD by an envoy from Chi-pin (Kapisa).[9] Further evidence from Hiuen Tsang shows that Kai-pi-shi produced all kind of cereals, many kinds of fruits, and a scented root called Yu-kin, probably khus or vetiver. The people used woollen and fur clothes and gold,[10][11] silver and copper coins. Objects of merchandise from all parts were found here.[12]
参考文献: Rasmussen M. et al.(2014): The genome of a Late Pleistocene human from a Clovis burial site in western Montana. Nature, 506, 7487, 225?229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature13025
a, Schematic phylogenetic tree of mtDNA haplogroup D4h3 and its sub-branch D4h3a.
Mutations from the root of haplogroup D4h are specified only for haplogroup D4h3a lineage; diagnostic mutations are shown only for defined sub-branches on solid lines. The haplotypes of Anzick-1, identical with the root haplotype of D4h3a, and an ancient full sequence from the northwestern coast of North America (Ancient939), are indicated in red. Insertions are indicated with ‘.’ followed by a number of inserted nucleotides (X if not specified), deletions are indicated with ‘d’ and back mutations to ancestral state with ‘!’. The geographical spread of sub-branches of haplogroup D4h is shown with different colours specified in figure legend.
b, Placement of Anzick-1 within the Y-chromosome phylogeny.
Anzick-1 (circled) represents Y-chromosome haplogroup Q-L54*(xM3) (blue), which is offset by haplogroup Q-M3 (dark blue). The lineage carried by the ancient Saqqaq Palaeo-Eskimo (light blue) constitutes an outgroup to Q-L54. Each branch is labelled by an index and the number of transversion SNPs assigned to the branch (in brackets). Terminal taxa (individuals) are also labelled by population, ID and haplogroup. Branches 21 and 25 represent the most recent shared ancestry between Anzick-1 and other members of the sample. Branch 19 is considerably shorter than neighbouring branches, which have had an additional ~12,600 years to accumulate mutations.
Table SI 14 Pigmentation prediction in the MA-1 individual contrasted with the Tyrolean Iceman The method is based on assessing a total 124 SNPs associated with pigmentation traits
Phenotype MA-1 (17 SNPs) Iceman (24 SNPs)
darker skin vs fairer skin blue eyes vs non-blue eyes brown eyes vs non-brown eyes green or blue eyes vs brown or black eyes red hair vs non-red hair freckles vs non-freckles blond hair vs non-blond hair brown hair vs non-brown hair lighter brown or blond hair vs darker brown or black hair blond or red hair vs brown hair lighter brown hair vs darker brown hair blond or red hair vs non-blond or non-red hair
MA-1 (17 SNPs) darker skin (6/9) Non-blue eyes (4/4) brown eyes (2/3) brown or black eyes (2/2) - freckles (1/1) Non-blond hair (1/1) brown hair (5/7) darker brown or black hair (2/3) brown hair (7/7) lighter brown hair (2/2) -
Iceman (24 SNPs) fairer skin (8/15) blue eyes (7/9) non-brown eyes (5/8) brown or black eyes (3/3) red hair (2/3) freckles (2/3) blond hair (2/3) brown hair (8/11) lighter brown or blond hair (2/3) brown hair (11/13) lighter brown hair (2/3) blond or red hair (2/3)
Paniya 5 Dravidian Tribal Palliyar 5 Dravidian Tribal Kattunayakan 5 Dravidian Tribal Palliyar^a 5 Dravidian Lower caste Madiga 13 Dravidian Lower caste Mala 13 Dravidian Lower caste Adi-Dravidar 5 Dravidian Lower caste Hakkipikki^a 4 Dravidian Tribal Vedda 4 Indo-European Tribal Kamsali 4 Dravidian Lower caste Chenchu^a 4 Dravidian Tribal Chamar^a 10 Indo-European Tribal Chenchu 6 Dravidian Tribal Bhil 17 Indo-European Tribal Kallar 5 Dravidian Lower caste Kallar^a 8 Dravidian Tribal Vysya 14 Dravidian Middle caste Malai Kuravar 5 Dravidian Tribal Satnami 3 Indo-European Lower caste Kuruchiyan 5 Dravidian Tribal Dushadh^a 7 Indo-European Lower caste Scheduled caste/tribe^a 6 Dravidian Lower caste
Mali 5 Dravidian Lower caste Minicoy 4 Indo-European Lower caste Gounder 5 Dravidian Middle caste Lodi 5 Indo-European Lower caste Naidu 4 Dravidian Upper caste Velama 4 Dravidian Upper caste Velama^a 9 Dravidian Upper caste Narikkuravar 5 Dravidian Tribal Tharu 5 Indo-European Tribal Dharkar^a 11 Indo-European Nomadic group Kanjar^a 8 Indo-European Nomadic group Muslim^a 5 Indo-European Religious group Srivastava 2 Indo-European Upper caste Jain 5 Indo-European Religious group Meghawal 5 Indo-European Lower caste Kshatriya^a 7 Indo-European Upper caste Vaish 4 Indo-European Upper caste Brahmin^a 8 Indo-European Upper caste Kshatriy^a 15 Indo-European Upper caste Brahmin 10 Indo-European Upper caste Sindhi^b 10 Indo-European Urban group Kashmiri Pandit 15 Indo-European Upper caste Pathan^b 15 Indo-European Urban group
Palliyar^a 5 Dravidian Lower caste Cypriot > Abhkasian (0.4) > Georgian (0.5) Brahmina 8 Indo-European Upper caste Tuscan > Lezgin (0.0) > Georgian (0.1)
他はじょーじ
We compute D(Onge, X; YRI, Y) where X is an Indian group shown above and Y is a West Eurasian group chosen from a panel of 43 groups including Europeans, Central Asians, Middle Easterners and Caucasian populations.
We display the results for the population Y with the highest D-statistic mean, the 2nd highest D-statistic mean (Z-score for the difference between highest and 2nd highest group), and the 3nd highest D-statistic mean (Z-score for the difference between the highest and 3nd highest). We consider
|Z| > 3 to be statistically significant. a indicates samples from Metspalu et al (2011) and b indicates samples from HGDP.
Religion Buddhism 0.00 % Christianity 0.77 % (Evangelical: Data not available) Ethnic Religions 0.00 % Hinduism 99.23 % Islam 0.00 % Non-Religious 0.00 % Other / Small 0.00 % Unknown 0.00 %
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin Brahmin (/?br??m?n/; also called Brahmana; from the Sanskrit br?hma?a ????????) are traditional Hindu societies of India, Nepal and The Far East.
Brahman, Brahmin, and Brahma have different meanings.
Brahman refers to the Supreme Self. Brahmin (or Brahmana) refers to an individual belonging to the Hindu priest, artists, teachers, technicians class (varna or pillar of the society) and also to an individual belonging to the Brahmin tribe/caste into which an individual is born; while the word Brahma refers to the creative aspect of the universal consciousness or God. Because the priest / Acharya is knowledgeable about Brahma (the God), and is responsible for religious rituals in temples and homes and is a person authorized after rigorous training in vedas (sacred texts of knowledge) and religious rituals to provide advice and impart knowledge of God to members of the society and assist in attainment of moksha, the liberation from life cycle; the priest / Acharya class is called "Brahmin varna." The English word brahmin is an anglicized form of the Sanskrit word Br?hmana.
he Lezgians (Lezgian: лезгияр, lezgiyar, Russian: лезгины, lezginy; also called Lezgins, Lezgi, Lezgis, Lezgs, Lezgin) are an ethnic group living predominantly in southern Dagestan and northeastern Azerbaijan and who speak the Lezgian language.
History[edit]In the 4th century BC, the numerous tribes speaking Lezgic languages, which is part of the Nakh-Dagestan family of languages, united in a union of 26 tribes, formed in the Eastern Caucasus state of Caucasian Albania, which existed before the 8th century BC. Under the influence of foreign invaders Caucasian Albania was divided into several areas - Lakzi, Shirvan, etc.
Hiuen Tsang describes Kai-pi-shi[7] as a flourishing kingdom ruled by a Buddhist Kshatriya king holding sway over ten neighbouring states including Lampaka, Nagarahara, Gandhara and Bannu.
Researchers doing DNA analysis discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular Y-chr and mtDNA that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia.
47.3% of Romani men carry Y-chr of haplogroup H-M82 which is rare outside the South Asia.[22] mtDNA haplogroup M, most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people.[22]
A more detailed study of Polish Roma shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India.[23] Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder congenital myasthenia is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise known only in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanies.[24]
A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".[27] Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations".[27] The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males.
A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romanies are "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Gypsy groups".[24]
The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32?40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16?25 generations ago".[24]
原論文 Iosif Lazaridis, Nick Patterson, Alissa Mittnik, et al. Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans bioRxiv posted online December 23, 2013 doi: 10.1101/001552
a, Geographical locations of Mal’ta and Afontova Gora-2 in south-central Siberia. For reference,
Palaeolithic sites with individuals belonging to mtDNA haplogroup U are shown (red and black triangles): 1, Oberkassel; 2, Hohle Fels; 3, Dolni Vestonice; 4, Kostenki-14.
A Palaeolithic site with an individual belonging to mtDNA haplogroup B is represented by the square: 5, Tianyuan Cave. Notable Palaeolithic sites with Venus figurines are marked by brown circles: 6, Laussel; 7, Lespugue; 8, Grimaldi; 9, Willendorf; 10, Gargarino.
Other notable Palaeolithic sites are shown by grey circles: 11, Sungir; 12, Yana RHS.
b, PCA (PC1 versus PC2) of MA-1 and worldwide human populations for which genomic tracts from recent European admixture in American and Siberian populations have been excluded19.
c, Heat map of the statistic f3(Yoruba; MA-1, X) where X is one of 147 worldwide non-African populations (standard errors shown in Supplementary Fig. 21). The graded heat key represents the magnitude of the computed f3 statistics.