認知療法としてはmild to moderate depression(初期〜中期のうつ病)に有効である。 認知行動療法としては、PTSD、強迫性障害、Depression in children and adolescents (若年期のうつ病)には有効である。過食症には(それに特化した認知行動療法は)おそ らく有効である(通常の認知行動療法は効果不明)。全般性不安障害にはおそらく有効 である。パニック障害には有効である。
1: J Clin Psychiatry. 1997 Jun;58(6):278-82; quiz 283-4. Links Cognitive-behavioral management of drug-resistant major depressive disorder. Fava GA, Savron G, Grandi S, Rafanelli C. Affective Disorders Program, University of Bologna, Italy.
BACKGROUND: The application of cognitive-behavioral treatment to drug-resistant major depression has received little research attention. METHOD: Nineteen patients who failed to respond to at least two trials of antidepressant drugs of adequate dosages and duration were treated by cognitive-behavioral methods in an open trial. RESULTS: Three patients dropped out of treatment. The remaining 16 patients displayed a significant (p < .001) decrease in scores on the Clinical Interview for Depression after therapy. Twelve patients were judged to be in remission at the end of the trial; only 1 of these patients was found to have relapsed at a 2-year follow-up. Antidepressant drugs were discontinued in 8 of the 12 patients who responded to cognitive-behavioral treatment. CONCLUSION: These preliminary results suggest that a trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy by an experienced therapist should be performed before labeling an episode of major depression as "refractory" or "treatment resistant." These latter terms should apply only when a psychotherapeutic effort has been made. Until then, it seems more appropriate to define depression as "drug refractory" or "drug treatment resistant."
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000 Feb;57(2):165-72. A randomized controlled trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy for persistent symptoms in schizophrenia resistant to medication. Sensky T, Turkington D, Kingdon D, Scott JL, Scott J, Siddle R, O'Carroll M, Barnes TR. BACKGROUND: Research evidence supports the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of drug-refractory positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Although the cumulative evidence is strong, early controlled trials showed methodological limitations. METHODS: A randomized controlled design was used to compare the efficacy of manualized cognitive-behavioral therapy developed particularly for schizophrenia with that of a nonspecific befriending control intervention. Both interventions were delivered by 2 experienced nurses who received regular supervision. Patients were assessed by blind raters at baseline, after treatment (lasting up to 9 months), and at a 9-month follow-up evaluation. Patients continued to receive routine care throughout the study. An assessor blind to the patients' treatment groups rated the technical quality of audiotaped sessions chosen at random. Analysis was by intention to treat. RESULTS: Ninety patients received a mean of 19 individual treatment sessions over 9 months, with no significant between-group differences in treatment duration. Both interventions resulted in significant reductions in positive and negative symptoms and depression. At the 9-month follow-up evaluation, patients who had received cognitive therapy continued to improve, while those in the befriending group did not. These results were not attributable to changes in prescribed medication. CONCLUSION: Cognitive-behavioral therapy is effective in treating negative as well as positive symptoms in schizophrenia resistant to standard antipsychotic drugs, with its efficacy sustained over 9 months of follow-up.
Neziroglu F,Henricksen J,Yaryura-Tobias JA. Psychotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder and spectrum: established facts and advances, 1995-2005. The Psychiatric clinics of North America. 2006 Jun;29(2):585-604.
Dropout rates and refractory cases persist, for reasons that remain unexplained. There are few predictor variables and few innovative approaches to deal with them. New treatment approaches must be developed to improve treatment response even for the responders. Studies show that symptoms are reduced minimally (30% 50%). No new ways of dealing with treatment-refractory cases have been developed. Studies now include more co-morbid cases, however, and their inclusion may account for some of the lack of progress in improvement rates. It needs to be seen whether patients who have one or more comorbid conditions do as well as patients who do not have comorbidity and whether the number or type of comorbid disorders accounts for treatment response. Perhaps better results would be seen with pure OCD cases. Certainly results now are more generalizable to clinical practice. Now it is important to look for alternative treatment approaches and to apply cognitive therapy to more specific problems. Cognitive therapy seems to be helpful with the disorders of the obsessive-compulsive spectrum. The attrition rate is lower when cognitive therapy is used in the treatment of hypochondriasis, and cognitive therapy also is helpful in reducing OVI , which is more severe in body dysmorphic disorder and hypochondriasis. The role of cognitive therapy in OVI needs further exploration.
「1年以上認知行動療法プログラムに参加した受刑者は、再犯率が他の受刑者に比べて 4割以上低い」 Aytes KE, Olsen SS, Zakrajsek T, Murray P, Ireson R. (2001). "Cognitive/ behavioral treatment for sexual offenders: an examination of recidivism." Sex Abuse. 13(4):223-31.
Recent research in the treatment of sexual offenders suggests that comprehensive cognitive/behavioral approaches may yield lower recidivism. This study reviewed such a program, existing in Jackson County, Oregon, since 1982. Offenders were mandated into this community-based program upon conviction of a felony or misdemeanor sexual offense, and averaged 2-3 years of participation. A group of offender who participated in the Jackson County program between 1985 and 1995 was identified through archival data from the Oregon Department of Corrections. The data revealed success or nonsuccess in treatment, and any new convictions for sexual or nonsexual offenses. A control group of nonsexual offenders in Jackson County, and a group of sexual offenders in Linn County who did not have access to any treatment program were also studied. As hypothesized, those Jackson County offenders who successfully completed treatment had lower recidivism rates than those who were unsuccessful in the program. The observed effect of the program was particularly strong for offenders who remained in treatment for 1 year or more. When review was restricted to those participants, the reoffense rate for Jackson County offenders was reduced by over 40% when compared with Linn County offenders.
> ・そもそも、自分の内部状態の何が問題でどのような状態が望ましいのかを捕らえるのも難しい。 →モニタリングは、自分の外に現われる現状について記録することが種である=自分の行動、自分の生理状態(例えば体温)など →自分の心理状態は、そもそも客観的に記述することが難しいが、自記式の心理学的尺度なども利用できる(ベックのBDIなど)。 →痛み、不安度、苦しさなどは、SUD - Subjective Units of Distress 又は Subjective Units of Disturbance 「主観的不快指数」を使うことも多い。 最悪(最大)10〜最低(最小)0で、主観的に状態を判断して決める。 ある程度記録していくと、それほど自分の主観もいいかげんでないことがわかる(あるいは、そこそこに正確になっていく)。
Mitte K. Meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioral treatments for generalized anxiety disorder: a comparison with pharmacotherapy. Psychol Bull. 2005 Sep;131(5):785-95. PMID: 16187860 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Psychiatry Res. 1998 Nov 9;84(1):1-6. Links FDG-PET predictors of response to behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy in obsessive compulsive disorder.
In subjects with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), lower pre-treatment metabolism in the right orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and anterior cingulate gyrus (AC) has been associated with a better response to clomipramine. We sought to determine pre-treatment metabolic predictors of response to behavioral therapy (BT) vs. pharmacotherapy in subjects with OCD. To do this, [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography scans of the brain were obtained in subjects with OCD before treatment with either BT or fluoxetine. A Step-Wise Variable Selection was applied to normalized pre-treatment glucose metabolic rates in the OFC, AC, and caudate by treatment response (change in Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale) in the larger BT group. Left OFC metabolism (normalized to the ipsilateral hemisphere) alone was selected as predicting treatment response in the BT-treated group (F = 6.07, d.f. = 1,17, P = 0.025). Correlations between normalized left OFC metabolism and treatment response revealed that higher normalized metabolism in this region was associated with greater improvement in the BT-treated group (tau = 0.35, P = 0.04), but worse outcome (tau = -0.57, P = 0.03) in the fluoxetine-treated group. These results suggest that subjects with differing patterns of metabolism preferentially respond to BT vs. medication.
うつ病の認知療法は再発率を低下させる確かなエビデンスがある。 Rupke SJ, Blecke D, Renfrow M. Cognitive therapy for depression. Am Fam Physician. 2006 Jan 1;73(1):83-6. Related Articles, Links
Cognitive therapy is a treatment process that enables patients to correct false self-beliefs that can lead to negative moods and behaviors. The fundamental assumption is that a thought precedes a mood; therefore, learning to substitute healthy thoughts for negative thoughts will improve a person's mood, self-concept, behavior, and physical state. Studies have shown that cognitive therapy is an effective treatment for depression and is comparable in effectiveness to antidepressants and interpersonal or psychodynamic therapy. The combination of cognitive therapy and antidepressants has been shown to effectively manage severe or chronic depression. Cognitive therapy also has proved beneficial in treating patients who have only a partial response to adequate antidepressant therapy.
Good evidence has shown that cognitive therapy reduces relapse rates in patients with depression, and some evidence has shown that cognitive therapy is effective for adolescents with depression.
Harrington R, Whittaker J, Shoebridge P, Campbell F. Systematic review of efficacy of cognitive behaviour therapies in childhood and adolescent depressive disorder. 幼児および青年のうつ病についての認知行動療法の効果についてのシステマティック・レビュー BMJ. 1998 May 23;316(7144):1559-63. PMID: 9596592 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
OBJECTIVE: To determine whether cognitive behaviour therapy is an effective treatment for childhood and adolescent depressive disorder. DESIGN: Systematic review of six randomised trials comparing the efficacy of cognitive behaviour therapy with inactive interventions in subjects aged 8 to 19 years with depressive disorder. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Remission from depressive disorder. RESULTS: The rate of remission from depressive disorder was higher in the therapy group (129/208; 62%) than in the comparison group (61/168; 36%). The pooled odds ratio was 3.2 (95% confidence interval 1.9 to 5.2), suggesting a significant benefit of active treatment. Most studies, however, were based on relatively mild cases of depression and were of only moderate quality. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive behaviour therapy may be of benefit for depressive disorder of moderate severity in children and adolescents. It cannot, however, yet be recommended for severe depression. Definitive large trials will be required to determine whether the results of this systematic review are reliable.
Journal of psychosocial nursing and mental health services. 2006 Jun;44(6):40-7. Borderline personality disorder: nursing interventions using dialectical behavioral therapy. Osborne UL, McComish JF. 弁証法的行動療法を用いた看護介入
Psychotherapeutic treatment of people with borderline personality disorder (BPD) is one of the greatest challenges confronting mental health professionals today. Clients with BPD are often difficult for nurses to work with, perhaps due to a lack of understanding of the underlying dynamics of the disorder. This article describes effective treatment strategies for BPD with a central focus on dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT). In typical mental health settings, nurses can effectively implement interventions using the concepts of DBT to help people with BPD build effective coping strategies and skillful behavioral responses for improved quality of life.
Dropouts versus completers among chronically depressed outpatients.
Journal of affective disorders. 2006 Jul 18
BACKGROUND: Premature termination is common among patients treated for depression with either pharmacotherapy or psychotherapy. Yet little is known about factors associated with premature treatment termination among depressed patients. METHODS: This study examines predictors of, time to, and reasons for dropout from the 12-week acute phase treatment of nonpsychotic adult outpatients, age 18-75, with chronic major depression who were randomly assigned to nefazadone alone (MED), cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy alone (CBASP) or both treatments (COMB). RESULTS: Of 681 randomized study participants, 156 were defined as dropouts. Dropout rates were equivalent across the three treatments. Among dropouts, those in COMB remained in treatment (Mean=40 days) significantly longer than those in either MED (Mean=27 days) or CBASP (Mean=28 days). Dropouts attributed to medication side-effects were significantly lower in COMB than in MED, suggesting that the relationship with the psychotherapist may increase patient willingness to tolerate side-effects associated with antidepressant medications. Ethnic or racial minority status, younger age, lower income, and co-morbid anxiety disorders significantly predicted dropout in the full sample. Within treatments, differences between completers and dropouts in minority status and the prevalence of anxiety disorders were most pronounced in MED. Among those receiving CBASP, dropouts had significantly lower therapeutic alliance scores than completers.
(つづき) LIMITATIONS: The sample included only individuals with chronic depression. CONCLUSIONS: Predictors of dropout included baseline patient characteristics, but not early response to treatment. Ethnic and racial minorities and those with comorbid anxiety are at higher risk of premature termination, particularly in pharmacotherapy, and may require modified treatment strategies.
PMID: 16857266 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Cognitive Remediation Therapy for outpatients with chronic schizophrenia: A controlled and randomized study.
Schizophrenia research. 2006 Oct;87(1-3):323-31.
Cognitive Remediation Therapy (CRT) is a novel rehabilitation approach designed to improve neurocognitive abilities such as attention, memory and executive functioning. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effect of CRT on neurocognition, and secondarily on symptomatology and psychosocial functioning. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) was used as a control condition because it aims to improve emotional problems and positive symptoms, focusing on modification of maladaptive beliefs and schemas, but neurocognition is not targeted. A total of 40 chronic patients with DSM-IV schizophrenia disorder were randomly assigned for 4 months to one of two treatment groups: CRT or CBT. Repeated assessments were conducted before and after the treatments and at the end of a follow-up period of 6 months. Additionally, a method to establish reliable change was calculated from a separate sample of 20 schizophrenic patients who were under standard medication without any kind of psychological treatment. Results showed that CRT produced an overall improvement on neurocognition (Mean effect size=0.5), particularly in verbal and nonverbal memory, and executive function. CBT showed the expected treatment effect on general psychopathology (anxiety and depression) but produced only a slight non-specific improvement in neurocognition (Working Memory). Furthermore, patients receiving CRT showed improvement in social functioning, demonstrating that cognitive improvements are clinically meaningful. These gains were still present at the 6 month follow-up.
>>57-58 Cognitive Therapy vs Medications in the Treatment of Moderate to Severe Depression
Robert J. DeRubeis, PhD; Steven D. Hollon, PhD; Jay D. Amsterdam, MD; Richard C. Shelton, MD; Paula R. Young, PhD; Ronald M. Salomon, MD; John P. O’Reardon, MD; Margaret L. Lovett, MEd; Madeline M. Gladis, PhD; Laurel L. Brown, PhD; Robert Gallop, PhD
Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62:409-416.
Background There is substantial evidence that antidepressant medications treat moderate to severe depression effectively, but there is less data on cognitive therapy’s effects in this population.
Objective To compare the efficacy in moderate to severe depression of antidepressant medications with cognitive therapy in a placebo-controlled trial.
Design Random assignment to one of the following: 16 weeks of medications (n = 120), 16 weeks of cognitive therapy (n = 60), or 8 weeks of pill placebo (n = 60).
Setting Research clinics at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn.
Patients Two hundred forty outpatients, aged 18 to 70 years, with moderate to severe major depressive disorder.
Interventions Some study subjects received paroxetine, up to 50 mg daily, augmented by lithium carbonate or desipramine hydrochloride if necessary; others received individual cognitive therapy.
Main Outcome Measure The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale provided continuous severity scores and allowed for designations of response and remission.
(つづき) Results At 8 weeks, response rates in medications (50%) and cognitive therapy (43%) groups were both superior to the placebo (25%) group. Analyses based on continuous scores at 8 weeks indicated an advantage for each of the active treatments over placebo, each with a medium effect size. The advantage was significant for medication relative to placebo, and at the level of a nonsignificant trend for cognitive therapy relative to placebo. At 16 weeks, response rates were 58% in each of the active conditions; remission rates were 46% for medication, 40% for cognitive therapy. Follow-up tests of a site x treatment interaction indicated a significant difference only at Vanderbilt University, where medications were superior to cognitive therapy. Site differences in patient characteristics and in the relative experience levels of the cognitive therapists each appear to have contributed to this interaction.
Conclusion Cognitive therapy can be as effective as medications for the initial treatment of moderate to severe major depression, but this degree of effectiveness may depend on a high level of therapist experience or expertise.
Author Affiliations: Departments of Psychology (Dr DeRubeis), and Psychiatry (Drs Amsterdam, Young, O’Reardon, and Gladis), University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Departments of Psychology (Dr Hollon), and Psychiatry (Drs Shelton, Salomon, Lovett, and Brown), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn; Department of Mathematics and Applied Statistics, West Chester University, West Chester, Pa (Dr Gallop).
>>57-58 Modulation of cortical-limbic pathways in major depression: treatment-specific effects of cognitive behavior therapy.
Goldapple K,Segal Z,Garson C,Lau M,Bieling P,Kennedy S,Mayberg H.
BACKGROUND: Functional imaging studies of major depressive disorder demonstrate response-specific regional changes following various modes of antidepressant treatment.
OBJECTIVE: To examine changes associated with cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). METHODS: Brain changes underlying response to CBT were examined using resting-state fluorine-18-labeled deoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Seventeen unmedicated, unipolar depressed outpatients (mean +/- SD age, 41 +/- 9 years; mean +/- SD initial 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score, 20 +/- 3) were scanned before and after a 15- to 20-session course of outpatient CBT. Whole-brain, voxel-based methods were used to assess response- specific CBT effects. A post hoc comparison to an independent group of 13 paroxetine-treated responders was also performed to interpret the specificity of identified CBT effects.
(つづき) RESULTS: A full course of CBT resulted in significant clinical improvement in the 14 study completers (mean +/- SD posttreatment Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score of 6.7 +/- 4). Treatment response was associated with significant metabolic changes: increases in hippocampus and dorsal cingulate (Brodmann area [BA] 24) and decreases in dorsal (BA 9/46), ventral (BA 47/11), and medial (BA 9/10/11) frontal cortex. This pattern is distinct from that seen with paroxetine-facilitated clinical recovery where prefrontal increases and hippocampal and subgenual cingulate decreases were seen.
CONCLUSIONS: Like other antidepressant treatments, CBT seems to affect clinical recovery by modulating the functioning of specific sites in limbic and cortical regions. Unique directional changes in frontal cortex, cingulate, and hippocampus with CBT relative to paroxetine may reflect modality-specific effects with implications for understanding mechanisms underlying different treatment strategies.
Archives of General Psychiatry. 2005 Nov;62(11):1228-36.
CONTEXT: The pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) includes disturbances in several neuroanatomical substrates and neurotransmitter systems. The challenge is to elucidate the brain mechanisms of MDD behavioral symptoms, chiefly those of anhedonia.
OBJECTIVES: To visualize the neuroanatomical substrates implicated in altered reward processing in MDD, using functional magnetic resonance imaging in combination with a dopaminergic probe (a 30-mg dose of oral dextroamphetamine sulfate) to stimulate the brain reward system; and to test the hypothesis that a hypersensitive response to dextroamphetamine in MDD involves the prefrontal cortex and the striatum.
DESIGN AND INTERVENTIONS: Among subjects with MDD and healthy control subjects, functional magnetic resonance imaging data were collected before and after single-blind administration of dextroamphetamine.
(つづき) SETTING: Subjects were recruited through local newspaper advertisements and by word of mouth. PARTICIPANTS: Twelve depressed subjects (mean age, 34.83 years; male-female ratio, 6:6) met criteria for MDD according to the DSM-IV, were not taking antidepressants, and had no comorbid Axis I disorders. Twelve control subjects (mean age, 29.33 years; male-female ratio, 5:7) were healthy volunteers without a history of Axis I disorders.
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Functional magnetic resonance imaging blood oxygen level-dependent activation was measured during a controlled task, and dextroamphetamine-induced subjective effects were assessed using the Addiction Research Center Inventory.
RESULTS: Subjects with MDD had a hypersensitive response to the rewarding effects of dextroamphetamine (2-fold increase; t(21) = 2.74, P = .01), with altered brain activation in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex and the caudate and putamen (F(1,44) = 11.93, P = .001).
CONCLUSION: Dopamine-related neuroanatomical substrates are involved in altered reward processing in MDD, shedding light on the neurobiology of the anhedonic symptoms in MDD and suggesting these substrates as future therapeutic targets.
Miklowitz DJ., A review of evidence-based psychosocial interventions for bipolar disorder. The Journal of clinical psychiatry. 2006;67 Suppl 11:28-33.
Various forms of psychosocial intervention have been found efficacious as adjunctive treatments for bipolar disorder, including family-focused therapy, interpersonal and social rhythm therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and individual or group psychoeducation. When used in conjunction with pharmacotherapy, these interventions may prolong time to relapse, reduce symptom severity, and increase medication adherence. Family-focused therapy seeks to reduce the high levels of stress and conflict in the families of bipolar patients, thereby improving the patient's illness course. Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy focuses on stabilizing the daily and nightly routines of bipolar patients and resolving key interpersonal problems. Cognitive-behavioral therapy assists patients in modifying dysfunctional cognitions and behaviors that may aggravate the course of bipolar disorder. Group psychoeducation provides a supportive, interactive setting in which patients learn about their disorder and how to cope with it. This article discusses each of these interventions and summarizes the evidence for their efficacy in randomized trials. Recommendations for implementing psychosocial interventions in clinical practice are also given.
An evaluation of cognitive behavioral therapy as a treatment for dissociative seizures: a pilot study.
Cognitive and behavioral neurology. 2004 Mar;17(1):41-9.
OBJECTIVE: To evaluate in an open trial the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy as a treatment of adults with dissociative seizures (i.e., "pseudoseizures"). BACKGROUND: Although suggestions have been made concerning the management of patients with dissociative seizures, no studies have previously evaluated the systematic use of cognitive behavioral therapy in the treatment of this disorder. METHOD: Twenty patients diagnosed with dissociative seizures were offered treatment comprising 12 sessions of cognitive behavioral therapy. Principal outcome measures were dissociative seizure frequency and psychosocial functioning, including improvement in employment status and mood. Measures were administered before treatment, at the end of treatment, and at a 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: Treatment was completed by 16 patients (questionnaire measures were not available for 4 patients who discontinued treatment). Following treatment, there was a highly significant reduction in seizure frequency and an improvement in self-rated psychosocial functioning. These improvements were maintained at the 6-month follow-up. There was also a tendency for patients to have improved their employment status between the start of treatment and the 6 -month follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: In this open prospective trial, cognitive behavioral therapy was associated with a reduction in dissociative seizure frequency and an improvement in psychosocial functioning in adults with dissociative seizures.
[Somatization -- conversion -- dissociation: strategies for behavior therapy][Article in German]
Zeitschrift fu¨r Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie. 2005;51(1):4-22.
Modern cognitive behavioral approaches for the treatment of patients with medically unexplained somatic symptoms have been developed on the basis of the classification systems DSM-IV and ICD-10. These systems define somatoform disorders as a homogeneous clinical group. Behavior therapy has additionally developed vicious circle models specifying etiological, triggering and maintaining factors. Treatment goals and strategies can be derived directly from these models. The main components are: (1) motivation of patients to accept the psychotherapeutic approach; (2) introduction of alternative explanations of the symptoms on the basis of both biomedical as well as psychosocial mechanisms; (3) evaluation of the new explanations by patient and therapist; (4) reduction of avoidance and inadequate illness behaviour. Health economical aspects are particularly important because patients with somatoform disorders tend to overuse medical services and are thus considered an expensive problem group for the health system.
Neziroglu F, Henricksen J,Yaryura-Tobias JA. Psychotherapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder and spectrum: established facts and advances, 1995-2005. The Psychiatric clinics of North America. 2006 Jun;29(2):585-604.
Dropout rates and refractory cases persist, for reasons that remain unexplained. There are few predictor variables and few innovative approaches to deal with them. New treatment approaches must be developed to improve treatment response even for the responders. Studies show that symptoms are reduced minimally (30% 50%). No new ways of dealing with treatment-refractory cases have been developed. Studies now include more co-morbid cases, however, and their inclusion may account for some of the lack of progress in improvement rates. It needs to be seen whether patients who have one or more comorbid conditions do as well as patients who do not have comorbidity and whether the number or type of comorbid disorders accounts for treatment response. Perhaps better results would be seen with pure OCD cases. Certainly results now are more generalizable to clinical practice. Now it is important to look for alternative treatment approaches and to apply cognitive therapy to more specific problems. Cognitive therapy seems to be helpful with the disorders of the obsessive-compulsive spectrum. The attrition rate is lower when cognitive therapy is used in the treatment of hypochondriasis, and cognitive therapy also is helpful in reducing OVI , which is more severe in body dysmorphic disorder and hypochondriasis. The role of cognitive therapy in OVI needs further exploration.