R1b and the Bell Beaker Phenomenon Ancient DNA analysis of two male skeletons from the Late Neolithic Bell Beaker site of Kromsdorf, Germany showed they belonged to Y-DNA haplogroup R1b.[1] More specifically, one skeleton belonged to R1b (M343) with the testing of R1b1a2 (marker M269) having failed and the other skeleton belonged to R1b1a2. Both were ancestral for SNP U106. No other downstream markers were tested. The find is important because it links the widespread Bell Beaker Phenomenon (hereafter BB) with the most frequent Y-DNA haplogroup in modern Western European males. It is also important as R1b has not appeared in any Neolithic or pre-Neolithic ancient DNA to date.
Resources
1. Lee, E. et al. (2012), Emerging genetic patterns of the European neolithic: Perspectives from a late neolithic bell beaker burial site in Germany, American Journal of Physical Anthropology, online 3 May 2012 ahead of print.
2. Muller J, Van Willigen S, New radiocarbon evidence for European Bell Beakers and the consequences for the diffusion of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon, in Franco Nicolis (ed.), Bell Beakers today: Pottery, people, culture, symbols in prehistoric Europe (2001), pp. 59-75.
3. Vander Linden M, Demography and mobility in North-Western Europe during the third millennium cal. BC, Prescott C. & Glorstad H. (reds.), Becoming European. The transformation of third millennium Europe and the trajectory into the millennium BC (2012). Oxbow Books, Oxford, p. 22.
Based on the radiocarbon (14C) dating of short lived material, the current prevailing view is that BB originated in Iberia (2900 BC cal.), with an almost concurrent appearance in southern France and northern Italy.[2] The spread of BB into Northern and Central Europe seems to have occurred somewhat later (~2500 BC). Vander Linden (2012) questioned the use of 14C dating to find the origins of BB, mainly on the grounds that most dates fall within a very narrow time-frame.[3] He reinforced instead the Dutch Model, which based on typology and burial data, sees BB as an evolution of the Single Grace Culture (Corded Ware) in the lower Rhine. Limited ancient DNA has failed to provide a male genetic link however as Corded Ware skeletons have been found to belong instead to haplogroup R1a1, haplogroup G and possibly haplogroup I. [4] [5]
Based on the homogeneity of STR variance of the three major subclades of P312 (U152, L21 and DF27), and similar modal values for U106 (65 of 67),[6] both P312 and U106 seem to have had a great period of geographic expansion in a relatively short period of time. A second, albeit less frequent, brother clade to L11 is defined by Y chromosome position 3263086 G>A (GRCh37/hg19 Assembly) (unpublished data). The distribution of this group is primarily restricted to Northern Italy and France[6] and is easily spotted in academic studies by way of its off-modal value of DYS426=13. While BB migrations seem to have impacted some areas such as Bavaria very heavily[7], other areas such as Northern Iberia and Bohemia show very little variability from the preceding non-BB populations [8].
Understanding the dynamics of Bell Beaker population movements and how they shaped the distribution of R1b and its phylogeny should warrant Y-DNA testing of ancient skeletal remains at the subclade level.[9]
American Journal of Physical Anthropology DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22074
Emerging genetic patterns of the european neolithic: Perspectives from a late neolithic bell beaker burial site in Germany†
The transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture in Europe is associated with demographic changes that may have shifted the human gene pool of the region as a result of an influx of Neolithic farmers from the Near East. However, the genetic composition of populations after the earliest Neolithic, when a diverse mosaic of societies that had been fully engaged in agriculture for some time appeared in central Europe, is poorly known.
At this period during the Late Neolithic (ca. 2,800?2,000 BC), regionally distinctive burial patterns associated with two different cultural groups emerge, Bell Beaker and Corded Ware, and may reflect differences in how these societies were organized. Ancient DNA analyses of human remains from the Late Neolithic Bell Beaker site of Kromsdorf, Germany showed distinct mitochondrial haplotypes for six individuals, which were classified under the haplogroups I1, K1, T1, U2, U5, and W5, and two males were identified as belonging to the Y haplogroup R1b.
In contrast to other Late Neolithic societies in Europe emphasizing maintenance of biological relatedness in mortuary contexts, the diversity of maternal haplotypes evident at Kromsdorf suggests that burial practices of Bell Beaker communities operated outside of social norms based on shared maternal lineages. Furthermore, our data, along with those from previous studies, indicate that modern U5-lineages may have received little, if any, contribution from the Mesolithic or Neolithic mitochondrial gene pool.
According to an initial analysis of trace elements by x-ray fluorescence by E. Pernicka, then at the University of Freiberg,
the copper originated at Bischofshofen in Austria, while the gold was thought to be from the Carpathian Mountains.[3]
A more recent analysis found that the gold used in the first phase was from the river Carnon in Cornwall.[4] The tin content of the bronze was also from Cornwall.[5]
Mesolithic[edit]The best-known mesolithic sites from Brittany are the cemeteries on the islands of Hoedic (10 graves) and Teviec (9 graves) in Morbihan. The collective graves are placed in shell middens without any particular order. Some graves show evidence of postmortal manipulations of the bones. There are single burials and empty graves (cenotaphs) as well. The graves are covered with stones, a hearth or antlers forming a sort of dome. Rich funeral gifts, flint tools, engraved bones, shell ornaments and ochre demonstrate the affluence of these hunter-gatherers, or rather fisher-gatherers. Certain shells are sex-specific.
In Teviec there are stone cist graves. The bones of an infant have been postmortally ornamented with striations.
The corresponding settlements consist of shell middens. A radiocarbon date of 4625 (uncal.) for Hoedic places it in the 6th Millennium BC cal, rather late in the Mesolithic sequence, and indeed there are some indications of contact with agricultural societies to the East. Their economy was based on marine resources. Recently, a number of accelerator dates have been published for Hoedic.
In Beg an Dorchenn in Plomeur (Finistere), domestic dog and cattle were already present, in Dissignac, microliths were associated with pollen evidence for clearances.
Some scholars speculate that megalithic graves might go back to the Mesolithic, but this contention is difficult to prove, as most structures have been reused. Large numbers of microliths have been found under the chambered tomb of Dissignac fr:Tumulus de Dissignac.
According to 19th-century linguist James Darmesteter and modern linguist Michael M. T. Henderson, Pashto is "descended from Avestan",[9][10][11] but Georg Morgenstierne says they are merely closely related.[47] The word "Pashto" derives by regular phonological processes from Parsaw?- "Persian".[48] Nonetheless, the Pashtuns are sometimes compared with the Pakhta tribes mentioned in the Rigveda (1700?1100 BC), apparently the same as a people called Pactyans, described by the Greek historian Herodotus as living in the Achaemenid's Arachosia Satrapy as early as the 1st millennium BC.[49] However, this comparison appears to be due mainly to the apparent, etymologically unjustified, similarity between their names.[50]
Strabo, who lived between 64 BC and 24 CE, explains that the tribes inhabiting the lands west of the Indus River were part of Ariana and to their east was India. Since the 3rd century CE and onward, they are mostly referred to by the name "Afghan" ("Abgan")[51][52][53] and their language as "Afghani".[7]
Scholars such as Abdul Hai Habibi and others believe that the earliest modern Pashto work dates back to Amir Kror Suri in the eighth century, and they use the writings found in Pata Khazana. However, this is disputed by several European experts due to lack of strong evidence. Pata Khazana is a Pashto manuscript[54] claimed to be first compiled during the Hotaki dynasty (1709?1738) in Kandahar, Afghanistan. During the 17th century Pashto poetry was becoming very popular among the Pashtuns. Some of those who wrote poetry in Pashto are Khushal Khan Khattak, Rahman Baba, Nazo Tokhi and Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the modern state of Afghanistan or the Afghan Empire.
Ancient Further information: History of Afghanistan
Ancient Kapi?a Janapada, located south-east of the Hindukush, included and is related to Kafiristan.[5] The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang who visited Kapisa in 644 AD calls it Kai-pi-shi(h).[6] Hiuen Tsang describes Kai-pi-shi[7] as a flourishing kingdom ruled by a Buddhist Kshatriya king holding sway over ten neighbouring states including Lampaka, Nagarahara, Gandhara and Bannu. Until the 9th century AD, Kapi?i remained the second capital of the Shahi dynasty of Kabul. Kapi?a was known for goats and their skin.[8] Hiuen Tsang talks of Shen breed of horses from Kapi?a (Kai-pi-shi). There is also a reference to Chinese emperor Tai-Tsung being presented with excellent breed of horses in 637 AD by an envoy from Chi-pin (Kapisa).[9] Further evidence from Hiuen Tsang shows that Kai-pi-shi produced all kind of cereals, many kinds of fruits, and a scented root called Yu-kin, probably khus or vetiver. The people used woollen and fur clothes and gold,[10][11] silver and copper coins. Objects of merchandise from all parts were found here.[12]
参考文献: Rasmussen M. et al.(2014): The genome of a Late Pleistocene human from a Clovis burial site in western Montana. Nature, 506, 7487, 225?229. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature13025
a, Schematic phylogenetic tree of mtDNA haplogroup D4h3 and its sub-branch D4h3a.
Mutations from the root of haplogroup D4h are specified only for haplogroup D4h3a lineage; diagnostic mutations are shown only for defined sub-branches on solid lines. The haplotypes of Anzick-1, identical with the root haplotype of D4h3a, and an ancient full sequence from the northwestern coast of North America (Ancient939), are indicated in red. Insertions are indicated with ‘.’ followed by a number of inserted nucleotides (X if not specified), deletions are indicated with ‘d’ and back mutations to ancestral state with ‘!’. The geographical spread of sub-branches of haplogroup D4h is shown with different colours specified in figure legend.
b, Placement of Anzick-1 within the Y-chromosome phylogeny.
Anzick-1 (circled) represents Y-chromosome haplogroup Q-L54*(xM3) (blue), which is offset by haplogroup Q-M3 (dark blue). The lineage carried by the ancient Saqqaq Palaeo-Eskimo (light blue) constitutes an outgroup to Q-L54. Each branch is labelled by an index and the number of transversion SNPs assigned to the branch (in brackets). Terminal taxa (individuals) are also labelled by population, ID and haplogroup. Branches 21 and 25 represent the most recent shared ancestry between Anzick-1 and other members of the sample. Branch 19 is considerably shorter than neighbouring branches, which have had an additional ~12,600 years to accumulate mutations.
Table SI 14 Pigmentation prediction in the MA-1 individual contrasted with the Tyrolean Iceman The method is based on assessing a total 124 SNPs associated with pigmentation traits
Phenotype MA-1 (17 SNPs) Iceman (24 SNPs)
darker skin vs fairer skin blue eyes vs non-blue eyes brown eyes vs non-brown eyes green or blue eyes vs brown or black eyes red hair vs non-red hair freckles vs non-freckles blond hair vs non-blond hair brown hair vs non-brown hair lighter brown or blond hair vs darker brown or black hair blond or red hair vs brown hair lighter brown hair vs darker brown hair blond or red hair vs non-blond or non-red hair
MA-1 (17 SNPs) darker skin (6/9) Non-blue eyes (4/4) brown eyes (2/3) brown or black eyes (2/2) - freckles (1/1) Non-blond hair (1/1) brown hair (5/7) darker brown or black hair (2/3) brown hair (7/7) lighter brown hair (2/2) -
Iceman (24 SNPs) fairer skin (8/15) blue eyes (7/9) non-brown eyes (5/8) brown or black eyes (3/3) red hair (2/3) freckles (2/3) blond hair (2/3) brown hair (8/11) lighter brown or blond hair (2/3) brown hair (11/13) lighter brown hair (2/3) blond or red hair (2/3)
Paniya 5 Dravidian Tribal Palliyar 5 Dravidian Tribal Kattunayakan 5 Dravidian Tribal Palliyar^a 5 Dravidian Lower caste Madiga 13 Dravidian Lower caste Mala 13 Dravidian Lower caste Adi-Dravidar 5 Dravidian Lower caste Hakkipikki^a 4 Dravidian Tribal Vedda 4 Indo-European Tribal Kamsali 4 Dravidian Lower caste Chenchu^a 4 Dravidian Tribal Chamar^a 10 Indo-European Tribal Chenchu 6 Dravidian Tribal Bhil 17 Indo-European Tribal Kallar 5 Dravidian Lower caste Kallar^a 8 Dravidian Tribal Vysya 14 Dravidian Middle caste Malai Kuravar 5 Dravidian Tribal Satnami 3 Indo-European Lower caste Kuruchiyan 5 Dravidian Tribal Dushadh^a 7 Indo-European Lower caste Scheduled caste/tribe^a 6 Dravidian Lower caste
Mali 5 Dravidian Lower caste Minicoy 4 Indo-European Lower caste Gounder 5 Dravidian Middle caste Lodi 5 Indo-European Lower caste Naidu 4 Dravidian Upper caste Velama 4 Dravidian Upper caste Velama^a 9 Dravidian Upper caste Narikkuravar 5 Dravidian Tribal Tharu 5 Indo-European Tribal Dharkar^a 11 Indo-European Nomadic group Kanjar^a 8 Indo-European Nomadic group Muslim^a 5 Indo-European Religious group Srivastava 2 Indo-European Upper caste Jain 5 Indo-European Religious group Meghawal 5 Indo-European Lower caste Kshatriya^a 7 Indo-European Upper caste Vaish 4 Indo-European Upper caste Brahmin^a 8 Indo-European Upper caste Kshatriy^a 15 Indo-European Upper caste Brahmin 10 Indo-European Upper caste Sindhi^b 10 Indo-European Urban group Kashmiri Pandit 15 Indo-European Upper caste Pathan^b 15 Indo-European Urban group
Palliyar^a 5 Dravidian Lower caste Cypriot > Abhkasian (0.4) > Georgian (0.5) Brahmina 8 Indo-European Upper caste Tuscan > Lezgin (0.0) > Georgian (0.1)
他はじょーじ
We compute D(Onge, X; YRI, Y) where X is an Indian group shown above and Y is a West Eurasian group chosen from a panel of 43 groups including Europeans, Central Asians, Middle Easterners and Caucasian populations.
We display the results for the population Y with the highest D-statistic mean, the 2nd highest D-statistic mean (Z-score for the difference between highest and 2nd highest group), and the 3nd highest D-statistic mean (Z-score for the difference between the highest and 3nd highest). We consider
|Z| > 3 to be statistically significant. a indicates samples from Metspalu et al (2011) and b indicates samples from HGDP.
Religion Buddhism 0.00 % Christianity 0.77 % (Evangelical: Data not available) Ethnic Religions 0.00 % Hinduism 99.23 % Islam 0.00 % Non-Religious 0.00 % Other / Small 0.00 % Unknown 0.00 %
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin Brahmin (/?br??m?n/; also called Brahmana; from the Sanskrit br?hma?a ????????) are traditional Hindu societies of India, Nepal and The Far East.
Brahman, Brahmin, and Brahma have different meanings.
Brahman refers to the Supreme Self. Brahmin (or Brahmana) refers to an individual belonging to the Hindu priest, artists, teachers, technicians class (varna or pillar of the society) and also to an individual belonging to the Brahmin tribe/caste into which an individual is born; while the word Brahma refers to the creative aspect of the universal consciousness or God. Because the priest / Acharya is knowledgeable about Brahma (the God), and is responsible for religious rituals in temples and homes and is a person authorized after rigorous training in vedas (sacred texts of knowledge) and religious rituals to provide advice and impart knowledge of God to members of the society and assist in attainment of moksha, the liberation from life cycle; the priest / Acharya class is called "Brahmin varna." The English word brahmin is an anglicized form of the Sanskrit word Br?hmana.
he Lezgians (Lezgian: лезгияр, lezgiyar, Russian: лезгины, lezginy; also called Lezgins, Lezgi, Lezgis, Lezgs, Lezgin) are an ethnic group living predominantly in southern Dagestan and northeastern Azerbaijan and who speak the Lezgian language.
History[edit]In the 4th century BC, the numerous tribes speaking Lezgic languages, which is part of the Nakh-Dagestan family of languages, united in a union of 26 tribes, formed in the Eastern Caucasus state of Caucasian Albania, which existed before the 8th century BC. Under the influence of foreign invaders Caucasian Albania was divided into several areas - Lakzi, Shirvan, etc.
Hiuen Tsang describes Kai-pi-shi[7] as a flourishing kingdom ruled by a Buddhist Kshatriya king holding sway over ten neighbouring states including Lampaka, Nagarahara, Gandhara and Bannu.
Researchers doing DNA analysis discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular Y-chr and mtDNA that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia.
47.3% of Romani men carry Y-chr of haplogroup H-M82 which is rare outside the South Asia.[22] mtDNA haplogroup M, most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people.[22]
A more detailed study of Polish Roma shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India.[23] Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder congenital myasthenia is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise known only in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanies.[24]
A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".[27] Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations".[27] The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males.
A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romanies are "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Gypsy groups".[24]
The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32?40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16?25 generations ago".[24]
原論文 Iosif Lazaridis, Nick Patterson, Alissa Mittnik, et al. Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans bioRxiv posted online December 23, 2013 doi: 10.1101/001552
a, Geographical locations of Mal’ta and Afontova Gora-2 in south-central Siberia. For reference,
Palaeolithic sites with individuals belonging to mtDNA haplogroup U are shown (red and black triangles): 1, Oberkassel; 2, Hohle Fels; 3, Dolni Vestonice; 4, Kostenki-14.
A Palaeolithic site with an individual belonging to mtDNA haplogroup B is represented by the square: 5, Tianyuan Cave. Notable Palaeolithic sites with Venus figurines are marked by brown circles: 6, Laussel; 7, Lespugue; 8, Grimaldi; 9, Willendorf; 10, Gargarino.
Other notable Palaeolithic sites are shown by grey circles: 11, Sungir; 12, Yana RHS.
b, PCA (PC1 versus PC2) of MA-1 and worldwide human populations for which genomic tracts from recent European admixture in American and Siberian populations have been excluded19.
c, Heat map of the statistic f3(Yoruba; MA-1, X) where X is one of 147 worldwide non-African populations (standard errors shown in Supplementary Fig. 21). The graded heat key represents the magnitude of the computed f3 statistics.