Michael Dummet's On Immigration and Refugees and 'Race' Panic and the Memory of Migration, edited by Meaghan Morris and Brett de Bary Reviewed by Amir Ahmadi
It is precisely because, in this area of philosophy, we know even less what it is that we are talking about than we do in other areas, that the proposal to approach our problems by considering how we might attempt to specify the meanings of the expressions of an entire language does not appear the waste of time that an analogous proposal would seem to be within epistemology.
because.. これこれの事情があっからさ the proposal [..]doesn't appear (to be?) the waste of time ほにゃららって提案も(この分野に限っちゃ)時間の無駄とは見えねえのよ。 that an analogous proposal would seem to be within epistemology 認識論で似たような提案したらそう見えちゃうだろうけどさ。
>>76 あっ!そうか! As is well known, some, pre-eminently Quine, have preferred to circumvent this difficulty by investigating the principles underlying the construction not of a theory of meaning for a language, but of a translation manual from it into some known language. The advantage is that we know exactly what form a translation manual has to take, namely an effective set of rules for mapping sentences of translated language into sentences of the language into which the translation is being made: we can therefore concentrate entirely upon the questions how we are to arrive at a system of translation as embodied in such a manual, and what conditions must be satisfied for such a system to be acceptable.
>>66 > It is precisely because, in this area of philosophy, we know even less what it is that > we are talking about than we do in other areas, that the proposal to approach our problems > by considering how we might attempt to specify the meanings of the expressions of an entire > language does not appear the waste of time that an analogous proposal would seem to be > within epistemology. > -----What is a Theory of Meaning?-------p2---
>>77 > >>76 あっ!そうか! > As is well known, some, pre-eminently Quine, have preferred to circumvent > this difficulty by investigating the principles underlying the construction not of > a theory of meaning for a language, but of a translation manual from it into > some known language. The advantage is that we know exactly what form a translation manual > has to take, namely an effective set of rules for mapping sentences of translated language > into sentences of the language into which the translation is being made: we can therefore > concentrate entirely upon the questions how we are to arrive at a system of translation > as embodied in such a manual, and what conditions must be satisfied for such a system to be > acceptable.
The disadvantage is that, while the interest of such an enquiry must lie in the light it throws on the concept of meaning, we are unable to be certain what consequences the results of the enquiry into translation do have for the notion of meaning, just because they are stated without direct appeal to that notion. To grasp the meaning of an expression is to understand its role in the language: a complete theory of meaning for a language is, therefore, a complete theory of how the language functoins as a language. Our interest in meaning, as a general concept, is, thus, an interest in how language works; a direct description of the way a language works---of all that someone has to learn to do when he learns the language--would, accordingly, resolve our perplexities in a way in which an indirect account, by means of a translation, cannot.
>>94 > The disadvantage is that, while the interest of such an enquiry must lie in > the light it throws on the concept of meaning, we are unable to be certain > what consequences the results of the enquiry into translation do have for > the notion of meaning, just because they are stated without direct appeal to > that notion. To grasp the meaning of an expression is to understand its role > in the language: a complete theory of meaning for a language is, therefore, > a complete theory of how the language functoins as a language. Our interest > in meaning, as a general concept, is, thus, an interest in how language works; > a direct description of the way a language works---of all that someone has to > learn to do when he learns the language--would, accordingly, resolve our > perplexities in a way in which an indirect account, by means of a translation, > cannot.
"Truth and Meaning" A first consideration of language leads us naturally to ask whether language is prior to thought or thought to language. We have made some progress when we come to see that this question is neither so straightforward nor so fundamental as it seems at the outset. A first move to dispel its deceptively plain appearance is to distinguish between temporal priority and priority in the order of explanation.
115 の続き It is conceivable that thought is prior to language in the order of explanation, but not in the order of acquisition. Its priority in the former regard would involve that, in order to explain what it is for words and sentences to have the meanings that they do, it is necessary to invoke notions relating to the thoughts the speaker uses them to express, or that they call up in the mind of the hearer.
>>119 > 115 の続き > It is conceivable that thought is prior to language in the order of explanation, > but not in the order of acquisition. Its priority in the former regard would > involve that, in order to explain what it is for words and sentences to have the > meanings that they do, it is necessary to invoke notions relating to the thoughts > the speaker uses them to express, or that they call up in the mind of the hearer.
119 続き For instance, on such a view, it might be that we cannot explain what it is for a proper name or demonstrative phrase to refer to an object save in terms of someone's having a thought about that object: "refer to" is therefore to be explained in terms of "think about". Such a priority of thought over language in the order of explanation requires that we can give an account of what it is to have a thought of a given kind ---- for instance, what it is to be thinking about a particular object ---- without reference to the thinker's possessing the means of expressing his thought in words.
>>121 些細な難癖かもしれませんが、 今の文脈では「notion」は「観念」よりも「概念」と訳した方がいいように思います。 この文脈はエヴァンズの話を主題にしていると思われ、 エヴァンズは「an Idea of an object」という表現をよく使うので、 「観念」という語が出てくるとつい「Idea」のことだと思ってしまう。 しかしこの意味での「Idea」は「notion」から区別しておく必要があると思われます。
It therefore implies that it is in principle possible for a being not in possession of a language to have such a thought. But it is quite consistent with that to suppose that an individual's acquisition of the capasity to use a language is always temporally prior to his acquisition of the capasity to frame full-fledged thoughts, or, indeed, that the same is true of the human race as awhole. It might be that it is only the acquisition of the means of expressing thoughts that triggers in us the capability of framing the thoughts so expressible. Something like this must have been the view of Frege, who held that human beings are capable of grasping thoughts only as expressed verbally or symbolically, but that it is no contradiction to suppose that there are beings who grasp the same thoughts as we do, without clothing them in sensible form.
For instance, on such a view, it might be that we cannot explain what it is for a proper name or demonstrative phrase to refer to an object save in terms of someone's having a thought about that object: "refer to" is therefore to be explained in terms of "think about". Such a priority of thought over language in the order of explanation requires that we can give an account of what it is to have a thought of a given kind ---- for instance, what it is to be thinking about a particular object ---- without reference to the thinker's possessing the means of expressing his thought in words.
It therefore implies that it is in principle possible for a being not in possession of a language to have such a thought. But it is quite consistent with that to suppose that an individual's acquisition of the capacity to use a language is always temporally prior to his acquisition of the capacity to frame full-fledged thoughts, or, indeed, that the same is true of the human race as a whole. It might be that it is only the acquisition of the means of expressing thoughts that triggers in us the capability of framing the thoughts so expressible. Something like this must have been the view of Frege, who held that human beings are capable of grasping thoughts only as expressed verbally or symbolically, but that it is no contradiction to suppose that there are beings who grasp the same thoughts as we do, without clothing them in sensible form.
126の続きだす。 Some gloss is here needed on the expression "full-fledged thoughts". Evidently , some mental activity takes place even in an infant, in the strict sense of a child who has not yet acquired language. Equally evidently, we have to ascribe some desires, beliefs, intentions, and plans to animals. That, in itself, is not enough to justify crediting either infants or animals with such thoughts as can be expressed in language and attributed to those who command a language.
>>138 Yeah, I myself have some misgivings about translating "demonstrative" as "shijiteki", since the Japanese expression can be used to cover all referential expressions, including proper names and descriptions. What translation would you recommend then?
demonstrative, a. and n. 1. Having the function or quality of clearly showing, exhibiting, or indicating; making evident; illustrative. 2. Rhet. Setting forth or describing with praise or censure. 3. Gram. Serving to point out or indicate the particular thing referred to: applied esp. to certain adjectives (often used pronominally) having this function 4. That shows or makes manifest the truth or existence of anything; serving as conclusive evidence. 5. That serves to demonstrate logically; belonging to logical demonstration. 6. Characterized or produced by demonstration; evident or provable by demonstration. 7. Given to, or characterized by, outward exhibition or expression (of the feelings, etc.). 8. That teaches a science by the exhibition and description of examples or experiments. rare. B. n. Gram. A demonstrative adjective or pronoun.
>>136 > 126の続きだす。 > Some gloss is here needed on the expression "full-fledged thoughts". > Evidently , some mental activity takes place even in an infant, in the strict sense > of a child who has not yet acquired language. Equally evidently, we have to > ascribe some desires, beliefs, intentions, and plans to animals. That, in itself, is > not enough to justify crediting either infants or animals with such thoughts as > can be expressed in language and attributed to those who command a > language.
The desires and beliefs of an infant or an animal have, of course, a content; but, in almost every case, there will be non-equivalent formulations of this content, to none of which it will be possible to award a preference, since there is nothing in the behaviour of the infant or animal that could ground the distinction between one way of specifying the belief or desire and another. Furthermore, it will often be the case that any(斜字体)formulation will be erroneous, in that it involves the ascription of concepts that the infant or animal cannot possess.
>>160 > The desires and beliefs of an infant or an animal have, of course, a > content; but, in almost every case, there will be non-equivalent formulations of > this content, to none of which it will be possible to award a preference, since > there is nothing in the behaviour of the infant or animal that could ground the > distinction between one way of specifying the belief or desire and another. > Furthermore, it will often be the case that any(斜字体)formulation will be erroneous, > in that it involves the ascription of concepts that the infant or animal cannot possess.
An excellent example of Frege's illustrates this vividly. He raises the question whether a dog can "have even an indeterminate idea of what we signify by the word 'one'"; and he says of the dog, in answer:
He will certainly notice a difference whether he has to defend himself against several other dogs or only against one, but this is only what Mill calls the physical difference. The question depends, rather, on whether he has so much as a dim awareness of that which is in common between the cases in which, for example, he is bitten by one larger dog and in which he chases one cat, that common feature which we express by means of the word "one". This seems to me unlikely. (Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik, §31)
>>167>>168 One(ワン) amazing story. ある男が家の近くを歩いていて、急に尿意を感じた。家に帰ろうかとも思ったが、あたりを見回すと 犬が一匹いるだけで誰もいない。そこで電信柱に向かって立小便を始めようとすると、 「おっさん、おっさん、そこで何すんねん。やめんかい。」 驚いてきょろきょろしても、犬しかいない。おかしいなと思ったが、立小便を始めようとすると、 「おっさん、おっさん、やめてえなあ。そこはわての縄張りやで。」 驚いて振り返ると犬が近づいて、男をにらみつけている。 「こりゃびっくりした。犬がしゃべっているのか?(Am I crazy, or is the dog talking? )」 「なに言うてんの。そこでおっさん小便せんといて。」と犬。 「どうしてしゃべれるの?天才犬か、おまえは?」と男。 そこへ男の子供がやってきた。 「おとうちゃん、おとうちゃん。何でさっきから犬に向かってワンワン言うてんの?」
An excellent example of Frege's illustrates this vividly. He raises the question whether a dog can "have even an indeterminate idea of what we signify by the word 'one'"; and he says of the dog, in answer:
He will certainly notice a difference whether he has to defend himself against several other dogs or only against one, but this is only what Mill calls the physical difference. The question depends, rather, on whether he has so much as a dim awareness of that which is in common between the cases in which, for example, he is bitten by one larger dog and in which he chases one cat, that common feature which we express by means of the word "one". This seems to me unlikely. (Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik, §31)
It is not, of course, a matter of what is likely or unlikely: the point is, rather, that the dog's behaviour falls far short of requiring, for an adequate description of it, the attribution to him of any recognition of the common element between those two and other situations describable by sentences containing the word "one". His behaviour would have to become immensely more complex to provide a basis for ascribing to him a grasp of the concept "one": indeed, if it were to do so, he would be at least on the verge of an ability to manipulate symbols. And yet, he can(斜字体)distinguish, as Frege acknowledges, being attacked by one dog from being attacked by several.
>>189 > It is not, of course, a matter of what is likely or unlikely: the point is, rather, > that the dog's behaviour falls far short of requiring, for an adequate > description of it, the attribution to him of any recognition of the common > element between those two and other situations describable by sentences > containing the word "one". His behaviour would have to become immensely > more complex to provide a basis for ascribing to him a grasp of the concept > "one": indeed, if it were to do so, he would be at least on the verge of an ability > to manipulate symbols. And yet, he can(斜字体)distinguish, as Frege acknowledges, > being attacked by one dog from being attacked by several.
訳がいいね。 We can perfectly well imagine that, on a certain route, he is liable to be attacked by one or more of several dogs that frequent that neighbourhood, and that he adopts a policy of standing his ground if there is only one of them, but retreating if there is more than one: he might cautiously look about to make sure that there really was only one. We should naturally say, "He is looking to see if there is one or more": but, properly speaking, this is not an accurate rendering of the dog's thought, since it would be impossible to have just that(斜字体)thought without grasping the concept "one".
次の問題は、「じゃあ、この考えをダメットに帰すのはどうなのか」ということだ。 漏れは初め、漏れの述べたような可能性を当然ダメットは考えているはずだ、 と思っていた。しかし、少なくとも『分析哲学の起源』は漏れの反対しようとした考えに与している。 また、今日改めて「Truth and Meaning」の先を読んで見たところ、 「dog's thought」「thoughts of Infants or of animals」といった言葉が何の留保もなく出てきている。 つまり、非言語使用者と言語使用者の違いを内容上の違い以外のものに基づいて説明する、 という可能性は、ダメットによっては全く考慮されておらず、 漏れの考えをダメットに帰すことはできないということになりそうだ。
We have no way of rendering the dog's thought accurately: not merely do we not have such a ready-made in our language, but we cannot even devise one. We cannot do so, because the dog does not have a thought expressible in language: he engages in some mental process that falls short of having the kind of thought a language-user is capable of having.
In addition to all this, the proto-thoughts of which a creature without language is capable----at least a creature of any of the kinds familiar in our experience---can occur only as integrated in this current activity, realized or frustrated: they cannot float free, as adult human thoughts can do. On our ability to entertain thoughts detatched from current activity depend not merely science and literature, but casual conversation, as we engage in it for companionship and on social occasions.
>>199 > 訳がいいね。 > We can perfectly well imagine that, on a certain route, he is liable to be attacked > by one or more of several dogs that frequent that neighbourhood, and that he > adopts a policy of standing his ground if there is only one of them, but retreating > if there is more than one: he might cautiously look about to make sure that there > really was only one. We should naturally say, "He is looking to see if there is one or > more": but, properly speaking, this is not an accurate rendering of the dog's thought, > since it would be impossible to have just that(斜字体)thought without grasping the > concept "one".
>>214 なんだ、笑わないでクレヨ。 ”Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century" Princeton University Press Vol.1 のintroduction に著者Scott Soamesの言葉で
To my mind the two most important achievements that have emerged from the analytic tradition in this period are (i) the recognition that philosophical speculation must be grounded in pre-philosophical thought, and (A)the success achieved in understanding, and separating one from another, the fundamental methodological notions of logical consequence, logical truth, necessary truth, and apriori truth. と書いている。
>>209 漏れは‘What is a Theory of Meaning?’に関しては I も II もきちんと読んでないし、 modestな意味理論とfull-bloodedな意味理論の違いについて きちんとした理解をしている自信はないけど… でもダメットがこの違いを 『非言語使用者に対する言語使用者の独自性を強調する立場に立って、 「言語的なもの」という領域の中だけでぐるぐる動いてる』意味理論と 『「非言語的なもの」に対する「言語的なもの」の位置を見積もることを目指してる』 意味理論の違い、という感じに捉えているというのはちょっとミスリーディングに思うな。 漏れの知ってる70年代までのダメットの他の議論との関連が不透明すぎる。 (まあ‘What is Theory of Meaning?’も70年代だけど。) もちろん、modestとfull-bloodedの区別が通常このような仕方で説明されるということは 否定できないけど、ダメットの関心は他のところにあると漏れは思うし、 その可能性は残しておいてくれてもいいんじゃないかな。
で、>>209でmodestな意味論とfull-bloodedな意味論てゆう話題を振ってみたのも そうした観点からなんだけど、肝心のこの問題についてはダメット自身も What is a Theory of Meaning? の(T)の方でしか(明示的には)言及してなかった と思うし、それも例によって何だかよく分からない部分が多くあるけど (特に、デイヴィドソンの意味理論がmodestなのかどうなのか、という問題についての ぐだぐだした議論とか)、 それでも、この対比のポイントを「意義(Sinn)なしの意味理論」に対する批判として 捉えるというのは、(好意的に解釈しても)あまりにミスリーディングに見える。
第二に、デイヴィドソン批判と意義の擁護の関係について言うと、 前回 >>218 を書いた後で思い出したんだけど、 “Truth and Other Enigmas”所収の‘Frege's Distinction between Sense and Reference’で ダメットはsense/referenceの区別に対する批判者の一人としてデイヴィドソンを挙げ、 しかも詳しく議論している(TOE, pp. 123ff を参照のこと)。 大分前にざっと読んだだけなので、漏れはこの議論の内容を全く記憶していないけど、 これを読んで妙に納得した覚えは残ってて、そのことが >>218 のレスの背景にある。 全く議論の中身を覚えていずにあんなことを言うのは無責任だったかもしれないけど、 それほど的外れなことは言っていないはず。
Many years ago, I heard Professor Anscombe argue that what makes such thoroughgoing Cartesian doubt absurd is that, if we came across a society of people in whose language there was an inflexion of the verb such that we could establish no correlation between the sentences containing verbs in this inflexion to which they assented and what had previously happened, we could not intelligibly suppose that this inflexion represented their past tense, but that their memories are hopelessly astray.
According to one well-known view, the best method of formulating the philosophical problems surrounding the concept of meaning and related concepts notions is by asking what form that should be taken by what is called 'a theory of meaning' for any one entire language.
According to one well-known view, the best method of formulating the philosophical problems surrounding the concept of meaning and related notions is by asking what form that should be taken by what is called 'a theory of meaning' for any one entire language.
原著 It may well be, then, that there is no valid conception of the mental accordinng to which the (very similar) arguments of Frege and Husserl against psychologism − those arguments, namely, that turn on the objectivity of sense −prove that sense is not dependent upon psychological processes.
前段 Psychologism of this kind is forced to invoke an assumption that the private events ocurring in the consciousness of any one subject are essentially similia to those occurring in the consciousness of another: it must represent this as an assumption (or, at best, a probable but untestable hypothesis) precisely because it holds, as Frege did, that there is no way of comparing the two sets of mental events.
後段 It is not, indeed, dependent upon psychological processes; but it may be that the arguments they used rested on a false conception of the mental which they shared with the advocates of psychologism.